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GRAMMAR AND 
COMPOSITION 

WITH 

PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

ROBBlNS,ROW 
& SCOTT 




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Row, Peterson & Co 




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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



ESSENTIAL STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

GRAMMAR AND 
COMPOSITION 

WITH 

PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

PART ONE 
CAROLYN M. ROBBINS 

Training Teacher, State Normal School, 
Mankato, Minnesota 

ROBERT KEABLE ROW 

Formerly Instructor in Education, University of Chicago; 
Superintendent of Schools, Berwyn, Illinois 

and 
ANGELO C. SCOTT, A. M., LL. M. 

Formerly President and Professor of the English 
Language and Literature, Oklahoma Agri- 
cultural and Mechanical College f 
Director of Extension Lectures, 
University of Oklahoma 



CHICAGO NEW YORK 

ROW, PETERSON CBk COMPANY 






Copyright, 1907, by 
CAROLYN M. ROBBINS AND R. K. ROW 

Copyright, 1908, by 
A. C. SCOTT 

Copyright, 1914, by 
ROW, PETERSON & CO. 



JUL 23 \m 

©CI.A376770 



PREFACE 

From an educational point of view, the only justification 
of a new text-book is that the author sees clearly a problem, 
not satisfactorily solved, and believes that, as a result of careful 
investigation and thorough testing of material and method, he 
has a distinctly better solution than has already been offered. 
The teaching of English grammar in elementary schools is still 
an unsolved .problem, though many eminent scholars and 
teachers have essayed its solution. 

The most prevalent, serious mistake, in this connection, 
has been the attempt to teach grammar too early in the school 
course. English grammar is a highly abstract science, be- 
cause it is the study of thought expressed in symbols. The 
analysis of language is, therefore, the analysis of thought 
and the modes of its expression. Grammar has been called 
the logic of the common schools. It might more appropri- 
ately be called the psychology of those schools. When we 
remember how complex the thought processes in English civi- 
lization have become, and how the language has been devel- 
oped and adapted to express every differentiation of thought 
and feeling, we may realize, in some measure, the difficulty 
of a systematic study of such a language. 

It is true, there are some very simple elements in all think- 
ing, and, hence, correspondingly simple elements in language, 
but in language that is worthy of careful study these simple 
elements are not, to any considerable extent, isolated. They 



iv PREFACE 

are usually embedded in, and logically inseparable from, a 
matrix of more complex elements. If the simple elements 
are picked out of their setting, or simple constructions are 
made for the special purpose of exemplifying grammar, the 
material, not genuine language, is probably not worth studying. 
A second common error in text-books on grammar for 
elementary schools has been the attempt to teach too much; 
that is, to analyze elements too minutely, to tease out over- 
nice distinctions and, hence, to make unnecessary classifica- 
tions. Important fundamental conceptions have been obscured 
by the mass of details. The really vital problems have been 
treated in a superficial way and the result, commonly, has been 
confusion, misapprehension, and often disgust with the very 
name ''grammar." 

Prominent among the features of this book is a carefully 
planned effort to eliminate these two errors. No attempt has 
been made to write the subject down to the thinking level of 
young children, to furnish predigested grammatical food for 
infants. It is believed that but few children are intellectually 
prepared for the real problems of formal English grammar 
until they enter upoii the last two years of the elementary 
school course. Even then, with the best graded line of ap- 
proach, the work soon becomes sufficiently difficult to chal- 
lenge the mettle of the best thinkers in the classes. 

Nor does the book assume to complete the study of the sub- 
ject. Some phases of English grammar belong in the high 
school. The aim is to provide for a careful, thorough study 
of the fundamental principles, so that, if the pupil has no 
opportunity for the further study of the subject, he will really 
know, and be able to use, what he has studied. While, if he 



PREFACE V 

can continue the study of English, or other languages, his 
equipment for that later study is of the best kind. 

A few years ago the school work in all the sciences was 
largely a matter of elaborate classifications. This was as true 
of English grammar as of plant or animal biology; but while 
the biologist has changed his attitude and now places the em- 
phasis upon function and relation, the grammarian usually 
adheres to all the useless old distinctions and classifications. 
This text places the stress upon function and relation, and 
omits all reference to many such useless distinctions as are 
implied in : abstract and concrete nouns ; common gender ; 
participial and compound adjectives; logical and grammatical 
predicate; the classification of prepositions and of adverbial 
clauses ; and many like refinements of no interest or value to 
children. 

It has been the aim of the authors to make this book both 
logical and psychological. The general plan is based on 
the fundamental conception that the sentence is the unit of 
language, and that the scientific study of language should 
begin with the unit. Further, that the first step in analyzing 
this unit gives us subject and predicate, the two essential ele- 
ments. At this point two reasonable courses are open; first, 
to continue the analysis of the sentence, isolating the various 
word, clause, and phrase modifiers of the subject and of the 
predicate, and then modifiers of the modifiers, and so on; or, 
second to begin the study of the function and relation in the 
sentence of words, as such. In this book the second course 
has been chosen, not because it is more logical than the other, 
but because it is more psychological. It is the line of least 
resistance which the mind of the learner, in beginning the 



vi PREFACE 

study of grammar, will naturally take. For example, it is 
vastly easier for the beginner to understand the noun than to 
understand the substantive phrase or the substantive clause. 
Similarly, it is much easier to get a clear notion of an adjective 
or of an adverb, than of the more complex corresponding 
elements of the sentence, the phrase and the clause. But, 
when clear ideas of the noun, the adjective, and the adverb 
have been formed, the enlargement of these ideas to include 
the corresponding phrases and clauses presents no difficulty. 
The process of thus enlarging the concept will follow as the 
normal mental movement in the study of grammar. 

The inductive method of development has been followed 
throughout this book, but care has been taken not to pursue 
this method unnecessarily in particular cases. Just as the 
teacher may do too much for the pupil, a book may easily do 
too much for the teacher, depriving her of the opportunity 
and privilege of self-direction and individual motive and effort. 
In the development work the aim has been to start it right, 
but to leave, in the main, the elaboration of the topic to the 
teacher and the class. 

Frequently, the study of grammar largely eliminates the 
study and practice of composition. To prevent this error some 
authors have mixed more or less composition throughout their 
grammar. The plan appears pedagogical, but in application 
it has been found that each subject loses much in individuality 
and continuity. In this book these two subjects have been 
kept separate, prominence being given to the grammar. The 
section on composition is not intended to furnish material for, 
or even to indicate, all that should be done in the upper grades 
in this subject. The purpose is to direct the work in composi- 



PREFACE vii 

tion along organized lines, to provide some good models, to 
stimulate thoughtful interest in the simpler and more obvious 
principles of the art of composition, and to encourage freedom 
and spontaneity in the practice of both oral and written 
language. 

It must not be assumed that this, or any other book, can 
teach composition. That can be done only by an enthusiastic, 
skillful, painstaking personality. The best book is' only an aid. 
The teacher should be infinitely more than the book. More- 
over, much of the best work in composition should grow out 
of the regular work in other subjects of study; a line of work 
which cannot be provided for in a text-book. It is hoped, 
however, that teachers will not only find the material here 
given valuable ; but will see how the suggestions ofifered and 
the principles developed are directly helpful in all composition. 

The manuscript of this text was the result of several years 
of patient labor, during which time the authors have had the 
benefit of helpful criticisms and suggestions from numerous 
teachers. The work was begun and well organized under the 
inspiring direction of the late Edward Searing, then President 
of the State Normal School, Mankato, Minnesota. Especially 
grateful acknowledgment for work on the manuscript is due 
to Mr. A. V. Greenman, Superintendent of Schools, Aurora, 
Illinois ; Mr. David Orland Coate, Department of English, 
State Normal School, Mankato, Minnesota; and Miss Harriot 
B. Ely, Instructor in Enghsh, Western Reserve University, 
Cleveland, Ohio. 



PREFACE TO "PRACTICAL ENGLISH" 

''Practical English," bound with this volume, is really Part 
I of the language book of the same name, which in its entirety 
contains three other Parts : "Errors of Usage," ''Punctuation 
and the Use of Capitals," and "Composition." These Parts 
are especially adapted to use in the first year of the high school, 
but the Part included in this volume touches practically no 
point or principle which the pupil has not previously studied. 
It is- a practice treatise — an application of what the pupil has 
already learned. 

The importance — indeed, the necessity — of such practical 
work is too obvious to need emphasizing. Everywhere through- 
out the grades and the secondary schools, attention should be 
given to the correct use of English, in writing and in speech ; 
but somewhere in the course a determined and concentrated 
attack on the centers of corruption in our language should be 
made. Logically this should be done upon the completion of 
the study of formal grammar ; and so it is done here. Yet the 
fact is reaHzed that the pupil at this point is still immature, and 
that he has not had what might be called advanced grammar; 
therefore the text does not profess to be comprehensive or 
elaborate, and it purposely avoids discussion of nice or tech- 
nical distinctions and refined points of usage. 

The author has had occasion to consult very many standard 
texts on English in the preparation of this volume, and is 
indebted to them for valuable suggestions. He desires to 
express special obligation to his friend and colleague, Professor 
Robert H. Tucker, and to Dr. William Herbert Corruth of 
Leland Stanford Junior University for generous and valuable 
assistance. 

viii 



CONTENTS 



Grammar 
Chapter page 

Introduction xiii 

I. Sentences 1 

II. Subject and Predicate ^ 5 

III. Parts of Speech 7 

IV. Nouns 20 

V. Pronouns 62 

VI. Adjectives 82 

VII. Adverbs 94 

VIII. Prepositional Phrases 98 

IX. Sentences and Clauses : 101 

X. Conjunctions 112 

XL Verbs 127 

XII. Selections for Study 198 

Composition 

XIII. The Art of Composition 223 

XIV. The Paragraph 226 

XV. The Sentence 247 

. XVI. Words 255 

XVII. Memory Selections ". 271 

XVIII. Form in Composition 276 

XIX. Correspondence 288 

XX. Words — Continued 300 

XXI. Narration 304 

XXII. Description 311 

XXIII. Words— Continued 319 

XXIV. Explanation 326 

XXV. How Writers Secure Effects 329 

ix 



CONTENTS 

OF 

PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

CHAPTER PAGES 

I. Agreement of Predicate with Subject in Number... 335-351 

11. The Nominative and Objective Cases of Pronouns. . . 352-362 

III. Agreement OF Pronouns with Antecedents in Number. 363-371 

IV. Certain Plurals and Possessives 372-380 

V. The Possessive Case Before Gerunds 381-383 

VI. The Use of Certain Irregular Verbs 384-392 

VIT. "Shall" and "Will/' "Should" and "Would" 393-398 

VIII. The Subjunctive Mood 399-402 

IX. The Use of "Like" for "As" or "As If" 403, 404 

X. The Expression of an Existing Fact or General 

Principle 405-408 

XL Miscellaneous Common Errors 409-426 



INTRODUCTION 



TO THE PUPILS 



You are about to take up a new subject of study, and you 
naturally want to know what is meant by Grammar, and why 
you should be asked to study it. These things you have a 
right to know, so far as you can readily understand and appre- 
ciate them, before you begin the study. 

Grammar, as you will have to do with it, is the study of 
words, and groups of words, according to the work they do, 
and the relations they bear to one another in sentences. You 
will find that different words, like different men and women, 
do different kinds of work, have different occupations. Just 
as men are classified as farmers, merchants, carpenters, print- 
ers, tailors, and so on, according to the work they do, so you 
will find words classified according to the work they do in 
sentences. Moreover, just as members of a family are related 
and work together for the good of all', so you will find words 
related and working together to make sentences. 

You have been studying language all your life and have 
learned a great deal about it in a practical way. You under- 
stand what you hear and, in a large measure, what you read 
in one language, and possibly more. You can make yourself 
understood in speech or in written expression. Now, words 
are instruments, sort of tools, of our thinking. Other things 
being equal, he is the best worker who best understands his 
tools. It is still possible for you to learn much more than you 



xii STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

know about the use of our language. In other words, you can 
get much more complete control of these tools, both as a 
means of understanding what others have written, and of 
thinking clearly and saying well what you think. 

A good old proverb says : *'A man is known by the company 
he keeps." There is a simpler and more practical test. "A 
man is known by the language he speaks." This test is com- 
prehensive. The language one uses not only indicates the 
kind and character of his education, but it shows the degree 
of refinement and culture in that education. J\Iore than that, 
it is, in many ways, a measure of one's power. In whatever 
one undertakes to do, much depends upon his power to express 
himself in appropriate, correct, clear, forceful language. In 
business the man who can say what he wishes in the best way, 
has the best chance of success. Men who excel in letter-writing 
are in great demand. In professional life, in social life, and 
in public affairs, skillful command of language is generally a 
condition of influence and success. 

The study of grammar is one of the means of gaining this 
power. It will enable you to see how others have expressed 
their thoughts. It shows how different ideas are related one to 
another in a sentence, and how these relations are more clearly, 
more forcefully, more appropriately expressed in good lan- 
guage than in defective language. It shows why certain forms 
of expression are wrong and other forms right. This will 
enable you to criticise your own language and thus improve 
it. There are many who maintain that the study of grammar 
does not help us to speak or write correctly. This is true 
only of young children, too young to understand grammar, 
or of mature persons whose language habits are permanently 
fixed. When a student is able to understand grammar, 



INTRODUCTION xill 

becomes conscious that he uses incorrect forms, and wishes 
to use correct language, a knowledge of grammar will help 
him very much, especially in his written expression, and the 
practice in writing carefully and correctly will improve his 
spoken language. 

More important, however, than anything else is the train- 
ing in thinking. For the most part we think in words and 
all efforts to realize clear, accurate, full expression help to 
make the thinking clearer and truer. But, the study of gram- 
mar is itself the best of training in thinking. No one can 
ever learn grammar by merely memorizing the words of a 
book or by trying to remember what some one says about it. 
From first to last the study of grammar requires clear think- 
ing. This does not imply that the subject is all difficult. On 
the contrary, the beginning of grammar can and should be 
made quite easy; but, easy or difficult, it must be thoroughly 
understood. In some studies such as reading, spelling and 
some parts of geography, one may miss a dozen lessons, and 
take up the work later without difficulty. This is not true of 
grammar. In a well planned study of grammar there are a 
certain number of steps arranged in a certain order. The 
steps from twenty to thirty, for example, depend upon a 
knowledge of all that precede them. The old adage : 

One thing at a time, and that done well, 
Is a very good rule, as many can tell, — 

is especially applicable to the study of this subject. 

Whether you enjoy the study of grammar or not, depends 
chiefly upon yourself. If you do not like discovering differ- 
ences in the meaning of words, if you care little whether you 



STUDIES IN ENGLISH 



say things in a right way or a wrong way, if you are satisfied 
to read things without more than half knowing what they 
mean, if you think this week's lessons can just about as well 
be learned next week, you will probably find the study of 
grammar dull and difficult. But, if you enjoy thinking things 
out for yourself, if you refuse to let things go without under- 
standing them, if you know the joy of mastering each step as 
you go, if you take pride in knowing the difference between 
correct and incorrect English, you will probably find the study 
of grammar very interesting and enjoyable. 



GRAMMAR 

SENTENCES 

STUDY 1 
Classification 

1. Near yonder forest. 2. The swaying trees. 3. 
Many flowers bloom in our garden. 4. Jason caught 
the fleece from the tree. 5. His threadbare clothes. 
6. The groves were God's first temples. 

From the above groups of words select those that 
are sentences. If you omit any, explain why. Com- 
plete such, making them sentences. What condition 
is necessary in order that a group of words may be a 
sentence ? 

A group of words that expresses a thought is a sentence. 

1. I have solved my problems. 2. Give the flow- 
er to your sister. 3. He bore a little crutch. 4. Can 
you explain what you mean? 5. Sing the song softly. 
6. Oh, see the rainbow! 7. What time is it? 8. Look, 
here comes the carriage ! 

Which of the preceding sentences simply make 
statements? Which ask questions? Which exclaim? 
Which command? 

1 



2 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

A sentence that merely makes a statement is a declara- 
tive sentence. 

A sentence that gives a command is an imperative sen- 
tence. 

A sentence that asks a question is an interrogative 
sentence. 

A sentence that expresses sudden or strong feeling is an 
exclamatory sentence. 



STUDY 2 
Classification of Sentences 

Tell the kind of each sentence : 

1. Live for something. 

2. The English captured the town. 

3. The oar has fallen overboard! 

4. Keenly the lightning flashed. 

5. Hold the pencil between the flame of a lamp and the 
sheet of paper. 

6. Write your name in kindness, love, and mercy in the 
hearts of your friends. 

7. Close the door. 

8. The man was wealthy. 

9. Consider the ravens. 

10. He ran to meet his father. 

11. It is a sin to steal. 

12. The teacher helped the boy work his problem. 

13. Oh, the horse is running away ! 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 3 

STUDY 3 
Classification of Sentences 

Classify the following sentences : 

1. John, give the boy a warning. 

2. Who is coming? 

3. I saw the picture that you painted. 

4. Tell him the news. ' 

5. The grapes are too sour. 

6. It is snowing! 

7. The baby cried twice yesterday. 

8. Have you ever crossed the ocean? 

9. Can you visit us to-morrow ? 

10. Give us the beautiful flowers. 

11. Who was there? 

12. Why did he come? 

13. Give me the fish. 

14. How well you sing! 

STUDY 4 
Classification of Sentences 
Tell the kind of each sentence in the following : 

Quite a little tumult of whispers was in Pandora's ear. 
"Let us out, dear Pandora, pray let us out ! We shall be such 
nice pretty playfellows for you 1 Only let us out I" 

All this made Pandora curious. "What can it be? Is 
something alive in the box? Well, I am resolved to take just 
one peep ; and then the lid shall be shut down as softly as ever ! 
No harm can possibly come from just one little peep!" 



4 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

What was Epimetheus doing all this time? This was the 
first time, since his little playmate had come to dwell with 
him, that he had attempted to enjoy any pleasure without 
her. (Adapted.) — Nathaniel hawthorne. 

STUDY 5 

Classification of Sentences 

Write, or find in some book you are reading, five 
declarative sentences, five imperative sentences, five 
interrogative sentences, five exclamatory sentences. 

According to use sentences are classified as : 

1. Declarative. 

2. Imperative. 

3. Interrogative. 

4. Exclamatory. 



CHAPTER II 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

STUDY 6 
The Subject 

1. The wind blows softly. 2. Charity sufifereth 
long and is kind. 3. How far that little candle throws 
its beams! 

About what does the first sentence tell something? 
The second? The third? 

The part of the sentence denoting the thing about which 
something is told is the subject. 

(Note. — In an imperative sentence the subject is always thou, ye 
or yoH, and generally is not expressed.) 

Find the subject in each of the following sentences: 

1. The blackbird whistles from the thorny brake. 

2. Richard was cruel. 

3. I shall study my lessons. 

4. Has an hour passed? 

5. True work is never a disgrace. 

6. The parent of vice is idleness. 

7. A shadow has fallen on her path. 

8. The young man was sitting near the table. 

9. Walk carefully. 

5 



STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

10. Put your papers here. 

11. Pity the sorrows of a poor old man. 

12. Did the brave soldier come here? 

13. You always say things pleasantly. 

14. ]\Iagellan sailed around the world. 

15. Your teacher will help you. 

16. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 

17. Now fades the glimmering landscape. 

18. Did the waves wash away your fine castles of sand? 

19. Oh, I may go! 

20. Shall you see the procession? 



STUDY 7 
The Predicate 

1. The wind blows softly. 2. Charity suiTereth 
long and is kind. 3. How far that little candle throws 
its beams! 

What is told about the subject in the first sentence? 
In the second? In the third? 

The part of the sentence that tells something about the 
thing represented by the subject is the predicate. 

Find the predicate in each of the sentences in the 
preceding study. Tell what kind of sentence each is. 



CHAPTER III 



PARTS OF SPEECH 

STUDY 8 
The Noun 

I. Flowers and ferns grow on the shore of the 
lake. 2. James and his father shipped wheat to town 
on Monday. 

In these sentences find each word that names some- 
thing. 

A word that names something is a noun. 

Select the nouns in these sentences : 

1. His father died last week. 

2. The girls sang three songs. 

3. The clergyman preached a long sermon. 

4. Kit was a shock-headed, shambling, awkward lad, with 
a wide mouth, red cheeks, a turned-up nose, and a comical 
expression of face. 

5. Jack and Jill went up the hill. 

6. John will study algebra and history. 

7. The boy and his sister are playing on the beach. 

8. The doctor is a man of few w^ords. 

9. That building across the river is a schoolhouse. 
10. The banks of the river are overgrown with brush. 

II. The little bird sits at his door in the sun. 
12. He wrote an article about ants. 

7 



8 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 9 

Analysis 

Find the subject and the predicate in each of the 
preceding sentences. 

STUDY 10 
The Pronoun 

1. I have a letter for you. 2. He tired himself. 3. 
We have books for them. 

In these sentences find each word that stands for 
a noun. 

A word that stands for a noun is a pronoun. 

Pronouns denote persons or things without naming 
them. 

Find the nouns and the pronouns in the following- 
sentences : 

1. She will not play with him. 

2. He seldom goes among men. 

3. Will you stand by me? 

4. Over our heads was an awning. 

5. After the battle is over, they count up their losses. 

6. I shall look into the matter. 

7. That is his hat. 

8. Who called so loud? 

9. I harnessed my horse with that of my neighbor. 
10. He gave several to me. 



I 



THE ADJECTIVE 9 

11. A farmer set a trap in the field for the cranes which 
were stealing his corn. Next day he found in it several cranes 
and a stork. ''Spare me," cried the stork, "I am not a crane, 
I have not eaten any of your corn." "That may be true," 
replied the farmer, "but this I know, I caught you in my field 
with thieves, and you must suffer with them." 

STUDY 11 
Analysis 

Classify the preceding sentences, and divide each 
into subject and predicate. 

STUDY 12 
The Adjective 

Flowers grow in the garden. Judging from what 
the sentence tells, what kind of flowers grow in the 
garden ? 

Small flowers grow in the garden. Can you now tell 
anything more about the flowers? 

1. Flowers grow in the garden. . 

2. Small flowers grow 'in the garden. 

3. Small, fragrant flowers grow in the garden. 

Compare these three sentences. In which has the 
noun flowers the broadest meaning, i. e., in which sen- 
tence may the noun flowers mean the greatest variety, 
large and small, beautiful and not beautiful, fragrant 
and not fragrant, colored and white? In which 
sentence is the noun flozvers limited to a special or 



10 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

narrower meaning? What words limit the meaning 
of the noun flowers? 

A word that limits the meaning of a noun or a pronoun 
is an adjective. 

Select the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in these 
sentences : 

1. The wise old owl dozed in an ancient tower. 

2. Three men sailed in that boat. 

3. He was refined by visits to other lands and by associa- 
tion with many men. 

4. The cheeks of the old man were scorched into a dusky 
red color by two fiery little gray eyes. 

5. The mountains gave the lost children berries and water. 

6. On the wide lawn the snow lay white and deep. 

7. The noblest mind the best contentment has. 

8. Many a carol old and saintly sang the minstrels. 

9. A little learniiig is a dangerous thing. 

10. The gentle rain refreshed the thirsty flowers. 

11. This industrious boy is the best student among all my 
hundred pupils. 

12. The sea is fascinating and treacherous. 



STUDY 13 

Analysis 

Select the subject and the predicate in each of the 
preceding sentences. 



THE VERB 11 

STUDY 14 

The Verb 

1. He came an hour later. 2. There was a king 
in those days. 3. Tall trees stand by the river. 
A word that asserts is a verb. 

Define predicate of a sentence. In each of these 
sentences find the part that is necessai-y to tell or 
assert something about the subject. 

Observe that the verb may assert in dififerent ways : 
by expressing action, as came in sentence 1 ; by 
expressing existence, as was in sentence 2 ; or by ex- 
pressing a state or condition, as stand in sentence 3. 

Find the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs in 
the following sentences: 

1. A robin built a nest near our house. 

2. (You) Hear the shouts of the schoolboys. 

3. (You) Lend me your ears. 

4. Hearest thou the din of the battle? 

5. A tall old-fashioned clock with heavy weights stood 

on the landing. 

6. She plucked the flower and threw it to her friend. 

7. (You) Tie the horse. 

8. Which is your brother? 

9. Bring me the book on the table. 

10. Shall we gather strength from irresolution and in- 
action ? 

11. The clerk had applauded. 

12. The air was filled with phantoms. 



12 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

13. How great was the mystery! 

14. I was keeping my grapes. 

15. The man rode home. 

16. Which boy did the will of his father? 

17. Every turf beneath their feet shall be a soldier's 
sepulchre. 

18. How wonderful is the advent of spring! 

19. Is your master ill? 

20. Hearken ! he speaketh yet. 

STUDY 15 
Analysis 

Tell the kind of each of the preceding sentences. 
Find the subject and the predicate of each sentence. 

STUDY 16 
The Preposition 

The house on the hill has been sold. In this sen- 
tence what is the relation of the house to the hill? 
What word expresses this relation? 

The boy slid down the hill. What is the relation of 
the act of sliding to the hill? What word shows this 
relation ? 

A word used with a noun, or its equivalent, to show its 
relation to some other word in the sentence is a preposi- 
tion. 

Find the verbs and the prepositions In these sen- 
tences; select the words between which each preposi- 
tion shows relation : 



THE ADVERB 13 

1. This work was done by an artist. 

2. I sent a letter to my friend. 

3. This book on the table was written for my brother. 

4. The cat ran under the house. 

5. She sprang after the ball. 

6. I lost it on the road to town. 

7. He went before me. 

8. That dog in the yard jumped over the fence. 

9. He wrote to me regarding the matter. 

10. The sea gull darted through the air into the water. 

11. The coat with the wide collar belongs to our guest. 

12. The lady scarcely spoke a word during the long 
journey. 



STUDY 17 
The Adverb 

1. He plays skillfully. 2. Hardy soon comforted 
him greatly. 3. Our man of letters was peculiarly 
happy. 4. The invention is wholly new. 

In these sentences find the words that affect the 
meaning of a verb or an adjective. Taking the sen- 
tences in order, explain how each of these words 
changes the meaning of the verb or the adjective. 

Words that change the meaning of verbs or ad- 
jectives are called adverbs. 

Sometimes an adverb changes the meaning of an- 
other adverb; as, He plays very skillfully; She sings 
quite well. 



14 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, 
an adjective, or another adverb. 

(Note. — In rare cases the adverb seems to modify a preposition, and 
sometimes the group of words introduced by the preposition. Such a 
group is called a phrase.) 

Select the adverbs in these sentences, and tell what 
kind of word each modifies: 

1. The clerk involuntarily applauded. 

2. The bundle is very heavy. 

3. My brown dress must be mended soon. 

4. The defeated troops suffered dreadfully. 

5. The lanterns were dimly burning. 

6. My old friend is seriously ill. 

7. The teacher will return presently. 

8. The river rose rapidly. 

9. It stood just under the eaves. 

10. This gift is especially appropriate. 

11. You know this quite well. 

12. A fair young soldier lay quietly beside him. 

STUDY 18 
The Conjunction 

1. The tree is tall and straight. 2. The ball flew 
over the net but into my hands. 3. We must fight 
or we must fly. 

In each of these sentences find a word that con- 
nects other words or groups of words. 

A word that merely connects words or groups of words 
is a conjunction. 



ANALYSIS 15 

Groups of words connected by a conjunction may 
be whole sentences. 

Find the verbs, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunc- 
tions in the following sentences : 

1. You must wake and call me early. 

2. The magician with a smile and half closed eyes told 
his story. 

3. Their bow strings twanged at every shot and their 
arrows fairly whistled through the air. 

4. Should I laugh or cry? 

5. Wash me thoroughly from my iniquity and cleanse 
me from my sins. 

6. He was surrounded by a large number of his boldest 
followers and by his best bowmen. 

7. Can't you find a book or something? 

8. You won't be fit for anything by six o'clock if you 
worry in that way. 

9. They did not go because it was raining. 

10. He came, but found me not. 

11. Bows bent and strings rang and arrows flew at the 
mark. 

12. Y'ou and I are invited. 

13. Robin's men formed a strong body, but they began to 
retreat towards the forest. 



STUDY 19 
Analysis 

Find the subject and the predicate in each of the 
preceding sentences. 



16 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 20 
The Interjection 

1. Hurrah! we have a hoHday. 2. Pshaw! I have 
spoiled this. 

What do Hurrah and Pshazv express ? 

A word that expresses sudden or strong feeling is an 
interjection. 

There are eight parts of speech, — nouns, pronouns, ad- 
jectives, verbs, prepositions, adverbs, conjunctions, and 
interjections. 

Tell the part of speech of each word in the follow- 
ing: 

"Come, wife," said Philemon to Baucis, "we will go and 
meet the poor people; they must feel too heavy-hearted to 
climb the hill." 

"Go you and meet them," answered Baucis, "I shall hasten 
indoors and prepare something for their supper. A comfort- 
able bowl of bread and milk would do wonders for them." 

She hastened into the cottage. Philemon went forward and 
extended his hand with a hospitable look and said in the 
heartiest tones, "Welcome, strangers, welcome!" 

"Thank you !" replied the younger man in a lively way. "We 
received quite another kind of greeting in the village. Pray, 
why do you live in a bad neighborhood?" 

"Ah !" observed old Philemon with a quiet and benign smile, 
"Providence put me here to make amends to you for the 
inhospitality of my neighbors." 

"Well said, old father," cried the traveler. "The truth is, 



PARTS OF SPEECH 17 

my companion and myself need some amends. Those chil- 
dren — the little rascals — have bespattered us finely with their 
mud balls. One of the curs has torn my coat. I struck him 
across the muzzle with my staff. You may have heard him 
yelp." (Adapted.) — Nathaniel hawthorne. 



STUDY 21 
Kinds of Sentences 

Find in other books five examples of each kind of 
sentence. 

STUDY 22 
Parts of Speech 

Write sentences containing five examples of each 
part of speech. 

STUDY 23 
Parts of Speech 

Tell the part of speech of the italicized words: 

1. Will you zvalk with me about the town? 

2. My very walk should be a jig. 

3. He went for a zvalk. 

4. The walk to the front gate is built of stone. 

5. Anchor the boat. 

6. The anchor was too small. 

7. The farmer plows with a yoke of- oxen. 

8. The plows are made of iron. 

9. You may iron the towels dry. 



18 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

10. The iron trap is in the yard. 

11. You must not stone the chickens. 

12. The stone is hard and cold. 

13. He swept the stone steps. 

14. The dog fell down in the street. 

15. The stone rolled down the hill. 

16. The dozvn from the feathers flew over everything. 

17. The cat was in a sound sleep. 

18. They sound the trumpet early. 

19. The sound awakened us. 

20. Your pencil is behind the books. 

21. Do not lag behind. 

22. The child ran after the dog. 

23. She came after the doors were closed. 

24. Then rushed the steed to battle driven. 

25. The troops appeared in battle array. 

26. We must battle with the wind and the wave. 

27. The frame was made of wood. 

28. The workmen will frame the picture. 

29. The match fell from her hand. 

30. They played a match game. 

31. You must match the color perfectly. 

32. Shoemaker, stick to your last. 

33. The flowers last until the frost comes. 

34. You may take the last piece of cake this time. 

35. I have seen you before. 

36. We must finish this before we sleep. 

37. She must reach home before dark. 
3S. The boy ran fast. 



PARTS OF SPEECH 19 

39. Red is a fast color. 

40. Charles is a /a>!»^ runner. 

41. Thou, when thou fastest, anoint thy head. 

42. The people of Ninevah proclaimed a fast. 

43. The\s'^wc?3' of grammar is easy if we think. 

44. They study for several hours each day, 

45. He is still at home. 

46. She tried to still the child's cries. 

47. The music came at still midnight. 

48. There's a good fire still in the stove. 

49. Sing the second stanza. 

50. Mary will return in a second. 

51. I second the motion. 

52. On what do you base your decision? 

53. Which side is the base of a triangle? 

54. We cannot think him a base man, 

55. Do not look for zvrong. or evil. 

56. The whole thing seems zvrong. 

57. They zvrong themselves who zin-ong others. 



CHAPTER IV 



NOUNS 

STUDY 24 

The Proper and the Common Noun 

1. The children are playing in the yard. 2. Maud, 
Ruth, and Frank are playing in the yard. 3. The 
family have gone to the city. 4. The family have 
gone to New York. 5. The Mississippi is the largest 
river in the United States. 

What is a noun? Make a list of the nouns in the 
above sentences, dividing them into two groups: 
those that are special names, or names of particular 
persons or places ; and those that are general names, 
or names common to a class of persons, places, or 
things. 

A noun that is the name of some particular person, place, 
or thing is a proper noun. 

A noun that is applicable to any one of a class is a 
common noun. 

The complete name of any person, place, or thing 
is taken as one word: Lake Superior, John Smith, 
Richard the Lion-hearted. 

20 



PARTS OF SPEECH 21 

Make a list of the proper nouns, and another of 
the common nouns in the following sentences: 

1. Rosa Bonheur was born at Bordeaux, France. 

2. Daniel Defoe wrote "Robinson Crusoe." 

3. Christopher Columbus, a navigator from Genoa, dis- 
covered the New World in 1492. 

4. He made four voyages across the Atlantic. 

5. My brother John has just returned from Florence, 
Italy. 

6. Laura took care of the stranger from the moment she 
came. 

7. Anthony Van Dyck became the favorite pupil of 
Rubens. 

8. He visited Antwerp, but his home was in England. 

9. Among his most distinguished portraits are those of 
Charles I. 

10. Mr. Young took down a huge bunch of keys. 

11. Robin Hood waited upon King Edward I. 



STUDY 25 
Parts of Speech 

Find the pronouns in this selection, and tell for 
what noun each stands; find five verbs: 

"Nearly every bird has a trade. Some are carpenters ; 
others are masons, weavers, tailors, basket makers, etc. It is 
only when building their nests that birds work at their trades. 
Then you may see the woodpecker hammering with his chisel- 
Hke bill, making a home in some dead tree. You can hear his 
strokes a long way through the woods. The chips fly from 
beneath his strong blows." 



22 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 26 
The Collective Noun 

I. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 2. 
The committee was composed of three men and two 
w^omen. 3. A flock of geese was on the pond. 4. 
The hunters started a covey of quail. 

From these sentences make a list of the nouns that 
designate several things as one. 

A noun that denotes a group considered as one is a col- 
lective noun. 

Find all of the collective nouns in these sentences : 

1. The herd ran violently down a steep place into the sea. 

2. His army is a ragged multitude. 

3. The man bought a span of horses. 

4. I have bought five yoke of oxen. 

5. Plates of steel are riveted to the side of the ship. 

6. The congregation rose and quietly left the church. 

7. The mob rushed madly down the street. 

8. All the country cried hate upon him. 

9. Did his regiment march past this morning? 

10. On a cool afternoon the boys sauntered down the lane. 

II. How quickly the crowd gathered! 

12. The whole class studied the wrong lesson. 

STUDY 27 
Analysis 

Analyze the preceding sentences by telling the kind 
of sentence, the subject, and the predicate. Tell, also, 
the part of speech of each word. 



NUMBER 23 

STUDY 28 
The Collective Noun 

Write sentences containing collective nouns that 
relate to the following objects: cattle, soldiers, deer, 
chickens, bees, men, birds, and students: 

Find five collective nouns in the books you are read- 
ing. 

NOUNS 

1. Kinds. ^ 

a. Proper 

b. Common 

c. Collective (a sub-class included in both 

proper and common nouns.) 

STUDY 29 
Number 

1. A fair little girl sat under a tree. 2. The fair 
little girls sat under the trees. 3. The men explained 
their purposes. 

4. They shook the depth of the desert gloom 
With their hymns of lofty cheer. 

5. Every flock has one black sheep. 6. My father 
feeds his flocks. 

Classify the nouns in the above sentences according 
as they denote one or more than one. 

*It has been usual to make another class or sub-class of nouns to 
include names of actions, qualities, or states of mind considered apart 
from material things and called abstract nouns. As this has little 
grammatical value, it is omitted. 



24 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

That form or use of a word that indicates one or more 
than one is number. 

Singular number denotes one. 

Plural number denotes more than one. 

RULES FOR THE FORMATION OF PLURALS OF NOUNS 

1. When the final sound of a singular noun joins easily 
with the ^ sound, the plural is formed by adding ^ only. 

2. Nouns ending in s, sh, ch (soft), x, and ^ form their 
plurals by adding es; as, gases, sashes, churches, foxes, fezes. 

3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y 
into i and add es; as, ladies, liHes, daisies. When ^; is preceded 
by a vowel the plural is formed in the usual way ; as, boys, 
valleys, delays. 

4. Some nouns ending in / and fe follow the general rule ; 
as, roofs, waifs, safes ; but the following change / into v and 
add es: beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, 
shelf, thief, wharf, wife, wolf. 

5. Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant generally 
add es to form their plurals; as, potatoes, tomatoes. To this 
rule there are several exceptions; as, altos, banjos, cantos, 
chromos, pianos, solos, etc. 

Write the plural of each of the following nouns : 

Motto, ash, gulf, fife, waltz, dish, loss, box, hiss, bottle, 
brush, monarch, arch, hoof, hero, chief, chromo, duty, grass, 
scarf. 

STUDY 30 

RULES FOR THE FORMATION OF PLURALS CONTINUED 

6. Some nouns form their plurals by changing the prin- 
cipal vowel ; as, men, mice, teeth, feet, etc. 



NUMBER 



25 



7. Letters, figures, and signs add the apostrophe and ^ 
to form their plurals; as, I's, fs, 4's, -\-'s. 

8. A few nouns have two plural forms with different 
meanings ; as, brothers, brethren ; dies, dice ; indexes, indices ; 
pennies, pence ; peas, pease ; fishes, fish. 

9. Several nouns have the same form for both singular 
and plural; as, sheep, deer, swine, quail, grouse, trout, and 
salmon. * 

10. Some compounds form their plurals in the usual way; 
as, cupfuls, doorways; more commonly the chief part takes 
the plural ; as, sons-in-law ; courts-martial ; and a few change 
both words; as, men-servants. 

11. Proper nouns take s or es but do not change internally ; 
as, the Henrys, the Joneses, the Neros. When preceded by 
titles proper nouns may pluralize either the title or the sur- 
name ; as, the Mr. Browns, or the Messrs. Brown ; the Miss 
Wilsons, or the Misses Wilson. 

12. Of nouns of foreign origin some retain the foreign 
inflection ; as, analysis, analyses ; stratum, strata ; tableau, tab- 
leaux. Others have both the English and the foreign plurals ; 
as, cherub, cherubs, or cherubim; bandit, bandits, or banditti. 

Write the plural of the following nouns : 



desk 


Miss Brown 


cargo 


Mr. Smith 


slab 


bog 


ox 


swine 


church 


gas 


folk 


man 


leaf 


beech 


deer 


goose 


roof 


wolf 


formula 


mouse 


wife 


self 


salmon 


chick 


arch 


hoof 


trout 


potato 


penny 


fly 


gold 


piano 


brother-in-law 


eyelash 


man-servant 


spoonful 



26 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 31 
Number 

In the following, tell the number of each noun and 
pronoun : 

Long lines of cliff breaking have left a chasm ; 
And in the chasm are foam and yellow sands ; 
Beyond, red roofs about a narrow wharf 
In cluster; then a moulder'd church; and higher 
A long street climbs to one tall-tower'd mill ; 
And high in heaven behind it a gray down 
With Danish barrows ; and a hazelwood, 
By autumn nutters haunted, flourishes 
Green in a cuplike hollow of the down. 

Here on this beach a hundred years ago, 
Three children of three houses, Annie Lee, 
The prettiest little damsel in the port, 
And Philip Ray, the miller's only son, 
And Enoch Arden, a rough sailor's lad 
Made orphan by a winter shipwreck, play'd, 

— TENNYSON. 



1. Singular. 

2. Plural. 



NUMBER 



STUDY 32 
Gender 



Group these nouns in three classes: those denoting 
the male sex ; those denoting the female sex ; and those 
that represent things without sex. 



NUMBER AND GENDER 27 

Men, queen, niece, bachelor, book, stone, pencil, 
wife, father, hen, barn, horse, gentleman, maid, hus- 
band. 

That form of a noun or of a pronoun that indicates sex 
is gender. 

Names of males are of masculine gender. 

Names of females are of feminine gender.' 

Names of things without sex are of neuter gender. 

(Note. — It is unnecessary to refer to the gender of a noun unless 
the form of the word shows that it is mascuHne or feminine.) 

STUDY 33 
Number and Gender 

Tell the number of the nouns and pronouns in the 
following; also the gender, when the form denotes 
gender : 

1. These people are men. 

2. Good night, little girl, good night. 

3. Cool shades and dews are round my way. 

4. The trees are shedding their leaves. 

5. O make her a grave where the sunbeams rest, 
When they promise a golden morrow. 

6. Had I a daughter worthy of such a husband, he should 
have such a wife. 

7. Bright star! would I were steadfast as thou art. 

8. Eat thou not the bread of him that hath an evil eye. 

9. Feelest thou not, O World, the earthquake of a chariot 
thundering up Olympus ? 



28 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

10. A thousand flowers enchant the gale 
With perfume sweet as love's first kiss. 

11. * We have no slaves at home. 

12. God is thy law. 

13. Prayers and tears have moved me, gifts could never. 

14. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 

15. Freely we serve because we freely love. 

16. The mellow year is hasting to its close. 
The little birds have almost sung their last ; 
Their small notes twitter in the dreary blast 

17. At last one night it chanced 

That Annie could not sleep, but earnestly 
Prayed for a sign, ''my Enoch, is he gone?" 

18. Six years have passed, — a long time for a boy and dog; 
Bob Ainslie is off to the wars; I am a medical student and 
clerk at Minto House Hospital. 

19. She looked sixty, and had on a mutch, white as snow, 
with its black ribbon; her silvery, smooth hair setting off her 
dark gray eyes — such eyes one sees only twice or thrice in a 
life time, full of suffering, full also of the overcoming of it: 
her eyebrows black and dehcate, and her mouth firm, patient, 
and contented. 

20. He recovered and thenceforth led a quiet, retired life 
in the country, in the companionship chiefly of women. 



STUDY 34 
Personification 

Sometimes we refer to things without life as though 
they had life and sex. This treatment is called per- 



PERSONIFICATION 29 

sonification. When the name of a personified quality, 
emotion, or thing is regarded as a proper nomi, it 
begins with a capital letter. 

Find the examples of personification in the follow- 
ing: 

1. Old Year, you must not die. 

2. The hoary Thames wanders along in his silver-wind- 
ing way. 

3. A maple leaf whose gown was red, 
Glanced gaily at her neighbor. 

4. Haste thee, nymph, and bring with thee 
Jest, and youthful Jollity, 

Sports that wrinkled Care derides, 
And Laughter holding both her sides. 

5. j\Iy mother Earth ! 

And thou, fresh breaking Day, and you, ye Mountains, 
Why are ye beautiful? 

6. Hope, enchanted, smiled and waved her golden hair. 

7. How wonderful is Death, Death and his brother Sleep ! 

8. O blithe New-comer ! I have heard, 

I hear thee and rejoice. 
O Cuckoo ! shall I call thee Bird, 
Or but a wandering Voice ? 

9. Let not Ambition mock their useful toil. 

GENDER 

1. Masculine. 

2. Feminine. 

3. Neuter.i 



30 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

STUDY 35 

Analysis 

Find the subject and the predicate of each of the 
following sentences: 

1. The trees are shedding their leaves. 

2. The dog is a pointer. 

3. Poor Httle Gluck waited very anxiously. 

4. Charles Dickens was born at Portsmouth. 

5. This extraordinary letter made us very curious. 

6. The Scotch King lay sick and discouraged in a lonely 
shed. 

7. Robert Bruce watched the patient efforts of a spider. 

8. Bruce sprang to his feet. 

9. A great green worm crawled across our path. 

10. Moths and butterflies are among the loveliest things 
living. 

11. Ants, bees, and wasps belong to the same family of 
insects. 

12. Robert had been at the farm nearly a week. 

13. Mr. Spencer invited him to take a drive. 

14. A large basket was in the buggy. 

15. Some chopped carrots and turnips were in the basket. 

16. Mr. Spencer took these to the sheep for a treat. 

17. The pasture Avas large and green. 

18. Four horses stood near the fence under a large tree. 

19. These horses came up to share the carrots. 

• 20. The horses hunted in Mr. Spencer's pockets for lumps 
of sugar. • 



THE SUBJECT NOMINATIVE 31 

STUDY 36 
The Nominative Case 

In each subject in Study 35 find the word or words 
that name that about which the predicate tells some- 
thing. 

Then find the verb of each predicate. 

Notice that in each of these sentences there is, be- 
tween the subject noun and the predicate verb, the 
relation of subject to predicate. 

Later you will find that nouns and pronouns have 
other relations in the sentence. 

That form or use of a noun or of a pronoun by which 
its relation to other words in the sentence is denoted is 
case. 

The use of a noun or pronoun in the relation of sub- 
ject to a verb is the nominative case. 

STUDY 37 
The Subject Nominative 

Find each noun that is in the nominative case be- 
cause used as the subject, and state the verb of which 
it is the subject: 

1. The mother bird sings her sweetest song in the 
morning. 

2. Nearly every bird has a trade. 

3. The robin moulds in his nest an inner layer of mud. 

4. The phoebe uses a mixture of mud and moss for her 
nest. 



32 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

5. The eave swallows build rows of mud tenements 
beneath the eaves. 

6. The climbing swallow uses wood and glue in his pretty 
little bracket-like basket. 

7. Each tail feather is tipped off with a stiff, sharp point. 

8. The great crested fly-catcher places his nest in a hol- 
low limb. 

9. Many thoughtless boys rob birds of their eggs and 
nests. 

10. A stern voice was heard outside. 

11. Moths fly at night. 

12. Butterflies love the sunlight. 

13. Prince Paris was a son of Priam, King of Troy. 

14. All the kings and princes of Greece had bound them- 
selves by an oath. 

15. The dog sprang up and stood on his hind legs. 

16. Has the last ray of sunshine departed? 

17. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

18. The whole island was covered with wood. 

19. From the trunk of the cocoa-palm, the natives of Cey- 
lon build houses. 

20. James and John study grammar. 



STUDY 38 
Parts of Speech 

Classify the words in the preceding sentences as 
parts of speech. 



THE SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT 



33 





STUDY 39 




Parsing Nouns 


Parse ten subject nouns found in Study Z7 . 




ORDER OF PARSING NOUNS 


1. 


Noun. 


2. 


Kind. 


3. 


Number. 


4. 


Gender. 


5. 


Case. 


6. 


Relation. 



The trees are shedding their leaves. Trees is a 
common noun, plural number, nominative case, used 
as the subject of the verb are shedding. 



FORM OF TABULATION 



Noun 


Kind 


Number 


Gender 


Case 


Relation 


Trees 


com. 


plur. 




nom. 


subject 

of verb 

"are shedding" 



In written lessons abbreviations may be used. See list of 
abbreviations at the back of this book. 

STUDY 40 
The Subjective Complement 

Sometimes the meaning of a verb is not complete 
unless followed by one or more other words. Com- 
pare The bird flies, with The bird builds, and with The 
bird is. Observe that the last two are incomplete in 
meaning unless words are added; as, The bird builds 
a nest, and The bird is beautifid. 



34 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

A word or group of words that completes the meaning 
of a verb is a complement. 

A complement that means the same as the subject, or 
that limits the subject, is a subjective complement. 

The dog is an animal. Here animal means the same 
as dog. The dog is kind. Kind limits dog. 

Find the subjective complements in the following: 

1. She is my teacher. 

2. They were late. 

3. The tower was high. 

4. The man is a tailor. 

5. Mary seems happy. 

6. Monday was a fine day. 

7. Little Mary was usually considered a smart girl. 

8. William McKinley was elected president. 

9. The old man has become a confirmed invalid. 

10. Are they wise? 

11. Was he well? 

12. The milk is turning sour. 

13. It was she. 

14. The air fek cold. 

15. He has been growing fleshy. 

16. It is I. 

In these sentences what three parts of speech do 
you find used as subjective complements? 



PREDICATE NOUN AND PREDICATE ADJECTIVE 35 
STUDY 41 
The Predicate Noun and the Predicate Adjective 

There are other uses of the nominative case closely 
alhed to that as subject. 

A noun used as a subjective complement is called a 
predicate noun, and is in the nominative case. 

The dog is a pointer; pointer is in the nominative 
case because it is a predicate noun of The dog is. 

When an adjective is used as a subjective complement it 
is called a predicate adjective. 

The dog is cross; cross is a predicate adjective of 
The dog is. 

In these sentences give, with reason, the case of 
every noun used as a subject or as a predicate noun. 
Remember that each subjective complement either 
means the same as the subject or limits the subject. 
Find the adjectives and the pronouns used as sub- 
jective complements: 

1. !Mary was a heroine. 

2. Those boys have been soldiers. 

3. Industry is the road to riches. 

4. The harvest truly is plenteous. 

5. The laborers are few. 

6. The temptation had proved irresistible. 

7. Some men are born great. 

8. A French king was brought a prisoner to London. 

9. His home appears a perfect palace. 
10. i\Iary stood silent. 



36 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

11. The flag is a signal. 

12. The foe and the stranger will tread o'er his head. 

13. The Lord judge between thee and me. 

14. How wonderful is death ! 

15. Every man has his faults. 

16. What sort of man is he? 

17. This thing is the greatest error of all. 

18. Good order, and not mean savings, produces great 
profit. 

19. John is the better writer. 

20. Neither John nor Henry was present. 

21. Joseph and Mary will take a walk. 

22. The intentions of these persons are uncertain. 

23. Can Mary see the picture? 

24. That man wore a large and shabby hat. 

25. Sincerity is valuable. 

26. An idea suddenly occurred to me. 

27 . The service was impressive. 

28. His younger days were spent in England. 

29. Charles is a boy of nine years. 

30. The Atlantic separates the Old World from the New. 

31. Sweet was the sound. 

32. The lark is gay. 

33. How happy are the children! 

34. His armor is his honest thought. 

35. Genius is eternal patience. 

36. The robin and the bluebird piping loud, 

Filled all the blossoming orchard with their glee. 

37. Every window and crevice of the barn seemed full of 
the treasures of the farm. 



THE APPOSITIVE 37 

38. His carelessness is somebody's loss. 

39. Ah ! gentlemen, that thing was a dreadful mistake. 

40. *There is a large bird in that tree. 

41. There are giants in the land. 

42. There fell a frost. 

43. By the yellow Tiber was tumult and affright. 

44. James was declared a mortal and bloody enemy, a 
tyrant, a murderer, and a usurper. 

45. The Giant Killer's exploits are wonderful. 

STUDY 42 
Parts of Speech 

Tell the part of speech of each word, and the kind 
of each sentence, in the first twenty of the preceding 
sentences. 

STUDY 43 
The Subjective Complement 

Write ten sentences containing either nouns, pro- 
nouns, or adjectives used as subjective complements. 

STUDY 44 
The Appositive 

1. Mr. Smith, the jeweler, is ill. 2. Mr. Smith, 
the baker, has good bread. 

Of what use in each of these sentences is the part 
immediately following Mr. Smith, and set off by com- 
mas? 

^Sometimes there and it are used with no meaning, merely as intro- 
ductory words, taking the place of the subject which is found in some 
other part of the sentence. When so used they are called expletives. 



38 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

A noun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun is 
said to be in apposition with it and agrees with it in case. 
The appositive always follows the word it explains. 

The man was Mr. Wilson, the miller; miller is a 
noun in apposition with Mr. Wilson, therefore in the 
nominative case, because Mr. Wilson is in the nomi- 
native case. 

Find the nouns in apposition in these sentences : 

•1. j\Iary, the seamstress, is at our house. 

2. Henry and George, my brothers, belong to a boat club. 

3. The conqueror of Mexico, Cortez, was cruel in his 
treatment of Montezuma. 

4. John, the beloved disciple, reclined on his Master's 
breast. 

5. Joseph, my son, has entered college. 

6. Jack, the sailor, saved the man from drowning. 

7. A French woman, the daughter of the commander, was 
on board. 

8. Mr. Smith, the carpenter, is building a piazza for us. 

9. John, the messenger, brought us no package. 

10. She is Jane, the brightest student. 

11. That tree, a sturdy oak, was struck by lightning. 

12. That man is Dr. James, the physician. 

13. Mary is my sister. 

14. That man seems to be IMr. French, a colonel in the 
late war. 

15. This is Julia, the maid. 

16. The first man on the boat was the sailor, Hans Hanson. 

17. The studious girl became a good scholar and valedic- 
torian. 



THE NOMINATIVE OF ADDRESS 39 

18. The story, "Black Beauty," is very interesting. 

19. Henry the Eighth, King of England, was father of 
Queen Elizabeth. 

20. Roosevelt, the rough-rider, became president. 

STUDY 45 
The Nominative Case 

In the preceding sentences, give reason for the case 
of each noun in the nominative. 

STUDY 46 
The Appositive 

Write ten sentences, each containing a noun in ap- 
position with a noun used as subject or as predicate 
noun. 

STUDY 47 
The Nominative of Address 

Some nouns are used independently of the rest of 
the sentence. When they are thus used they are in 
the nominative case. There are three ways of using 
a noun independently. See Study 48. 

A noun that represents the person or thing spoken to 
is a nominative of address. 

John, close the door. 

Give the construction, i. e., the case and use, of the 
italicized nouns : 



40 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

1. Alary ^ John has the boat ready. 

2. Patsy boy, stop crying a minute. 

3. "Who is your neighbor in No. 32, Mr. Kenneth?'* I 
asked. 

4. Annie, my ^i;7, cheer up, be comforted. 

5. "Oh," she cried, "dear Philip, wait a while." 

6. ^oi* took the dead dog, and said, ''John, we'll bury 
him after tea." 

7. Master John, this is the mistress. 

8. Roll on, thou deep and dark-blue Ocean, roll. 

9. May, has James mastered the horses? 
10. Jane, are you the sister of Mrs. Stearns? 

STUDY 48 
The Nominative by Exclamation 

Some nouns are used independently, simply by ex- 
clamation. 

Tell the construction of each italicized word: 

1. Oh, happy love, where love like this is found! 

Oh, heartfelt raptures! bliss beyond compare — burns. 

2. Old ag.e, the graybeard! well indeed I know him. 

3. O Scotia! my dear, my native soil! 

For whom my warmest wish to Heaven is sent. — burns. 

4. A tory! a tory! a spy! a refugee! hustle him! away 
with him ! — Irving. 

5. And Philip asked, 
'Then you will let me, Annie f" 

6. ''O, shrieve me, shrieve me, holy man!'' 
The Hermit crossed his brow. — cot.ertdge. 



THE POSSESSIVE CASE 41 

7. Oh, that flagon! that wicked flagon! what excuse shall 
I make to Dame Van Winkle! — irving. 

8. A light broke in upon my brain. 

It was the carol of a bird. — byron. 

9. Knowing well captivity 

Sweet bird! I could not wish for thine! — byron. 
10. Christopher, the lord of the castle, arose in wrath. 
IL O Father, the pig, the pig! do come and taste how nice 
the burnt pig eats. — lamb. 

USES OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 

1. Subject. 

2. Predicate Noun. 

3. Appositive with a Noun in the Nominative 
Case. 

4. Independent. 

a. Nominative of Address. 

b. Nominative Absolute. See Study 170. 

c. By Exclamation. 

STUDY 49 
The Possessive Case 

1. Tom's dog is a colHe. 2. Is that Clara's book? 
3. The man's sheep are in the pasture. 

What does the apostrophe indicate in the words, 
Tom's, Clara's, and mans? 

What part of speech are these words? 

The use of a noun or of a pronoun to indicate owner- 
ship is the possessive case. 



42 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

Tell the construction of the italicized words in the 
following : 

1. Jack's hat fell into the water. 

2. The motion of the boat was not that of a steamer. 

3. Tom Piatt's huge rubber boot whirled across the boat 
and caught the man's uplifted arm. 

4. Had it been one of Nature s own sunny spots, the ozvl 
would have swept back and forth across it. 

5. I have read the King's proclamation. 

6. Neil's good luck was on the way back to camp. 

7. The girl's lessons were very easily prepared. 

8. Can you fight one of King George's men? 

9. Alice's and Jessie's brothers are soldiers. ' 
10. George gained refuge in his father's barn. 

What is an appositive? What is the case of a 
noun that is in apposition with another noun in the 
nominative case? Similarly a noun in the possessive 
case may be in apposition with another noun in the 
possessive case ; as, / have bought Smith the grocer' s 
house. Why is the apostrophe not used with the first 
noun ? 

STUDY 50 
The Possessive Case — (Continued) 

The possessive form is sometimes used alone when 
the noun that it modifies in thought is omitted; as, 
The hook is Mary's. 

Parse the italicized words in the following: 



RULES FOR THE FORMATION OF POSSESSIVES 43 

1. The crow's love of variety is manifested in another 
way. 

2. The heaver s house is the last thing. 

3. My brother James's dog is a collie. 

4. The largest fish in the basket was Fred's. 

5. Tom was Johns favorite, and Jennie was Fan's. 

6. The prize for the Queen of Beauty was a knot of ribbon. 

7. The ^a^ was England's pride. 

8. Your ^w/<7;' Marty's shazvl was torn. 

9. Jane's was on the table. 

STUDY 51 
The Possessive Case — (Continued) 

Find in your literature or story books ten sentences 
containing nouns in the possessive case. 

STUDY 52 
Rules for the Formation of Possessives 

Nouns add the apostrophe (') and s to the nomi- 
native singular to form the possessive singular, and 
the apostrophe only to the plural to form the posses- 
sive plural. There are a few exceptions to this rule. 
When a singular noun ends in s sound, the possessive 
is often formed, for the sake of euphony, by the addi- 
tion of the apostrophe only; as, goodness'; and when 
a noun does not form its plural by the addition of s or 
es, the possessive is formed by the addition of apos- 
trophe and s; as, men's. 



44 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

In the possessive of compound nouns, the possessive 
sign is placed at the end of the word; as, sister-m- 
law's. 

When two or more nouns denote joint possession 
of the same thing the possessive sign is used only with 
the last noun ; as, Lord and Taylor's store. 

When two or more nouns denote separate pos- 
session of like things each noun is followed by the 
possessive sign; as, Alice's and Mary's cousins are not 
acquainted. 

Nouns that do not denote living things are seldom 
used in the possessive case. These express the idea 
by the use of a prepositional phrase; as, the top of the 
desk, rather than, the desk's top; the point of a pencil, 
rather than the pencil's point. 

To this rule there are three exceptions, viz : ( 1 ) es- 
tablished personification; as, the ship's side; (2) 
common idioms; as, for mercy's sake; (3) possessives 
of measure; as, the day's work, a dollar's zvorth, at 
arm's length. 

Form the possessive of these nouns and* use them 
in sentences: 

Sailor, Mary, King of England, chimney-sweep, 
carpenter, girls. Brown & Co., foxes, father-in-law, 
Bryant, ladies, women. 

USES OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE 

1 . Possessive Modifier. 

2. Appositive with a Noun in the Possessive Case. 



THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT 45 

STUDY 53 
The Object Complement 

What is a complement? 

In the sentence, The dog seized the rabbit, the word 
rabbit completes the meaning of the verb by telling 
what he seized. To say The dog seized, would mean 
nothing unless it is told what he seized. Rabbit 
names the object of the action expressed by seized. In 
the sentence, The dog sneezed, the sense is complete 
because the dog could not possibly sneeze anything. 

The word standing for the thing that is the object of 
the action denoted by the verb is the object of the verb. 
It is also called object complement. 

What is the subjective complement? 

It should be remembered that a subjective comple- 
ment completes the verb and means the same as or 
limits the subject, while an object complement com- 
pletes the meaning of the verb and names the object 
of the action. 

Find the subjective complements and the object 
complements in these sentences : 

1. John struck James. 

2. I ate the apple. 

3. The apple is a fruit. 

4. Jane wrote the letter. 

5. The boys studied their lessons. 

6. Their lessons seemed long. 

7. These things are the beginning of fox-ways. 



46 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

8. He carried the prize away. 

9. He took the trap from the fox's legs. 

10. The quiet opening in the woods is always a pretty 
scene. 

11. The fox has spent his life actively. 

12. Mr. Spencer invited him, 

13. They began their hunting by lying in ambush about 
the nearest farm. 

14. Sometimes the mother told strange stories, but oftener 
they sat silent. 

15. The dog with the big voice must be old Roby. 

16. We may pass the gentleman. 

17. You are the older child. 

18. The rise of the water is great. 

19. Sometimes two or three families build a single large 
house. 

20. The second boy found the owl. 

21. I have caught you. 

22. There were no birds, nor bugs, nor bees ; the flowers 
were gone, and the days were short and gray. 

23.- He looked about, but he saw only the old woman, the 
lame boy, the mother with her child, and the beautiful woman. 

24. Thor said nothing, but he was very angry. 

25. We drove the horses through the lane. 

26. I learned the wisdom of this advice. 

27. Always he was growing old and feeble. 

28. The girls saw us. 

29. I called a wood-mouse out from his den under a stump. 

30. We cannot forget you. 

31. Mooween, the bear, is a peaceable fellow. 



THE OBJECTIVE CASE WITH A VERB 47 

32. He is natural and unconscious in the deep woods. 

33. We looked straight into each other's eyes. 

34. People seldom went down that way ; the road was 
steep, and there was an easier way at the other side. 

35. Their device seemed simple. 

36. The mother folded her hands on her breast and said 
the words of a prayer and thought of her little ones. 

37. Sometimes they approached the house. ' 

38. At dusk I turned the canoe. 

39. This call of the male bird is not difficult. 

40. He has patience and care. 

41. I reached the junipers. 

42. The crows found him in a pine grove. 

43. He heard a flock of crows. 

44. A lynx likes bear meat. 

45. The orioles were weaving the last threads into their 
nest. 

46. That same day I carried out some bright bits of ribbon. 

47. No accident ever befell them. 

48. I took the remainder down. 

49. Br'er Rabbit thumped the earth. 

50. I left a generous pinch of salt for him. 

In these sentences, what two parts of speech are 
nsed as object complements? What three parts of 
speech are used as subjective complements? 

STUDY 54 

The Objective Case With a Verb 

The use of a noun or of a pronoun as object of a verb is 
the objective case. 



48 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

The hoy struck the hall. Ball is in the objective 
case because it is the object of the verb struck. What 
three cases have you now studied? 

In the last set of sentences, parse each noun used as 
object of a verb. 

STUDY 55 
Parts of Speech 

Tell the part of speech of each word in the last 
twenty-five sentences in Study 53. 

STUDY 56 
Subjective Complement and Object Complement 

Write five sentences containing subjective comple- 
ments. 

Write ten sentences containing either nouns or pro- 
nouns used as objects of verbs. 

STUDY 57 
The Objective Case With the Preposition 

There are other uses of the objective case closely 
allied to that as object. 
What is a preposition? 

The noun or the pronoun that the preposition brings into 
relation with some other word in the sentence is in the 
objective case. 

He walked toward town. Toward shows the rela- 
tion between walked and tozvn. Town is in the ob- 



THE APPOSITIVE 49 

jective case because it is the object of the relation ex- 
pressed by the preposition tozvard. A preposition may 
be used with several nouns in the objective case; as, 
The man shot at the rabbits, birds, and ducks. 

In the following, find the prepositions, and give 
the construction of the nouns in the objective case: 

1. The most famous dog in America was Owney, the 
postal dog. 

2. He traveled with the mail bags from one end of the 
country to the other, 

3. He even went to Alaska and across the Pacific Ocean. 

4. He would follow the mail bag to the station and jump 
into the postal car. 

5. At last he died of old age and was buried in a fiower 
garden. 

6. A costly marble fountain was erected to the memory 
of the faithful little dog, and a bronze statue of "Grey-Friar's 
Bobby" sits on top of it. 

STUDY 58 
Prepositions and Objects 

Find in your story books ten prepositions, and the 
nouns in the objective case because used with them. 

STUDY 59 
The Appositive 

What is an appositive ? What is the case of a noun 
in apposition with one in the nominative case? With 



50 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

one in the possessive case? Then, what should you 
infer to be the case of a noun in apposition with one 
in the objective case? 

Tell the construction of the italicized nouns : 

1. The children love their dog, Fido. 

2. Ireland, Erin, the Green Isle, was my native home. 

3. The hoys passed Dr. Janson, the minister. 

4. I used Mary's sled, and he used lohns. 

5. John sang with ]\Irs. Smith, the soprano. 

6. Mary, the inaid, married Peter, the coachman. 

7. I bought the book at McClurgs. 

8. You may walk down the street to the corner of Broad- 
way and buy candy of his cousin, Jane Morris. 

STUDY 60 
Construction 

Give the construction of all italicized nouns in the 
following : 

The whole of this valley belonged to three brothers, 
Schwartz, Hans, and Gliick. Schzvartz and Hans, the two 
elder brothers, were very ugly men, with overhanging cye- 
brozvs and small, dull eyes. They lived by farming the Treas- 
ure Valley, and very good farmers they were. They killed 
everything that did not pay for its eating. They shot the 
blackbirds, because they pecked the fruit. They poisoned the 
crickets for eating the crumbs in the kitchen. They worked 
the servants without any zcagcs. It would have been very odd 
if, with such a system of farming, they hadn't become very 



THE INDIRECT OBJECT 51 

rich ; and very rich they did become. They had heaps of gold 
lying about on their floors, yet they had never given a penny 
or a crust in charity. 

The youngest brother, Gliick, was as completely opposed, in 
both appearance and character, to his seniors as could possibly 
be imagined or desired. He was not above twelve years old, 
fair, blue-eyed, and kind in temper to every living thing. 

(Adapted.) — ruskin. 



STUDY 61 
The Indirect Object 

1. She told the children a story. 2. The con- 
ductor gave the boy the change. 

Give, with reason, the case of story; of change. 
What does the noun children tell? The noun boyf 
Which is more closely connected with told, story or 
children? With gave, change or boyf 

The noun or pronoun that tells to or for whom or v^hat 
an action is performed, where the preposition is not used, 
is the indirect object of the verb. The indirect object is in 
the objective case. 

They told their father the truth; truth is the object 
of the verb told, and father is the indirect object 
because it tells to zvhom they told the truth. In other 
words, father is in the objective case because it is the 
indirect object of the verb told. 

Parse the nouns in these sentences : 

1. Pass your brother the bread. 

2. You must tell your mother the truth. 



52 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

3. Did Mr. Jones give Julia the horse? 

4. The clerk secured the room. 

5. Her friend took Helen the shawl. 

6. He left Sarah his money. 

7. They showed Catherine the goods. 

8. Mrs. Tamer bought Jane three yards of lace. 

9. Give the conductor your ticket. 
10. Father bought her the horse. 



STUDY 62 
Indirect Object 

Write five sentences containing indirect objects. 

What is a complement? What two kinds of com- 
plements have you studied? What is the difference 
between a subjective and an object complement? Use 
these words as subjective complements: bread, ball, 
chair, tree, garden. 



STUDY 63 
Uses of Nouns 

1. Use words in Study 62 as object complements. 

2. Use these words as indirect objects: Mary, 
sister, him, James, girl. 

3. Use these words independently: gardener, 
father, Clara, firemen, boys. 

4. Use these last nouns in apposition. 



THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT 53 

STUDY 64 
The Objective Complement 

They made the path straight. 

Consider the use of straight in this sentence. It teUs 
the changed condition of the path through the mak- 
ing. Notice the difference between, They made the 
straight path, and They made the path straight. In 
the latter, the verb made in itself does not fully ex- 
press the action, but needs the additional idea straight. 
They made the path straight, or They made straight 
the path, means they straightened the path. 

Compare with this the use of president and leade'^ 
in: They elected him president, and The boys chose 
him leader. Such complements of the verb are called 
objective complements. 

A word or group of words that shows what the object 
is made or thought to be through the action of the verb 
is an objective complement. 

An objective complement is never found unless the 
sentence contains an object. Distinguish object com- 
plement, subjective complement, and objective com- 
plement. 

A noun or a pronoun used as an objective complement 
is in the objective case. 

Find the objective complements in these sentences. 
Give the construction of each noun in the objective 
case: 



•54 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

1. They called him captain. 

2. The men painted *'The Louise" white. 

3. The boys elected John miipire. 

4. The teacher chose Mary valedictorian. 

5. The artist made the picture beautiful, 

6. He was called a brave man. 

7. The ploughman made the furrows parallel. 

8. The convention nominated William IMcKinley for 
president. 

9. The delegates elected a soldier vice-president. 

10. The place was chosen by the Bradstreet family. 

11. John made the stick pointed. 

12. Susan called him her brother. 



STUDY 65 
The Objective Complement 

What parts of speech are used as objective comple- 
ments in Study 64? 

What parts of speech can be used as subjective 
complements? As object complements? 

Write fiYt sentences containing objective comple- 
ments. 



COMPLEMENTS 



1. Subjective. 

2. Object. 

3. Objective. 



CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS 55 

STUDY 66 
Construction of Nouns 
Give the construction of all italicized words : 

1. I called on Tom, the tinker. 

2. Miss Marble, your teacher, desires your success. 

3. They chose John, my brother. 

4. We call a boy a hero when he overcomes temptation. 

5. You set the children a good example. 

6. I think, my friend, you are wrong. 

7. A wasp! run, or it will sting the baby. 

8. This house is my aunt's home. 

9. The acts of Mary, the nurse, are kind. 

10. Caesar, the conqueror of Gaul, was brave and cruel. 

11. The boy is an artist. 

12. She teaches the boys grammar. 

13. The footsteps of time! who can follow them? 

14. Your book is on the table, Clara. 

15. The boy refused his sister the book. 

16. This work is the sewing, of John, the tailor. 

17. They made Smith mayor of the cUy. 

18. He left Sarah his money. 

19. The ^^V/ ran a needle into her finger. 

20. Fr^t/ loved Hilda, his sister. 

21. His mother gave the children directions. 

22. The man is a tailor. 

2Z. She was elected principal of the school. 

24. Edison is an inventor. 

25. He knew the haunt of every ^^a^^ and ^irJ. 

26. Webster s dictionary may be bought at Wilsons book- 



store. 



56 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

27. She seems a good woman. 

28. The spider is a small insect. 

29. A cunning man was the cobbler. 

30. We made Henry steersman. 

STUDY 67 
The Adverbial Objective 

What is an adverb? What parts of speech do ad- 
verbs modify? 

Find twenty sentences containing adverbs. 

The wall is yards high. In this sentence what does 
the noun yards express ? Of what word does it affect 
the meaning? He walked ten miles. Of what use is 
the word miles f You should have come an hour 
sooner. Explain the use of hour. 

What three parts of speech here have their mean- 
ing modified by a noun? Then these nouns do the 
same work as what other part of speech? When 
nouns are thus used they can modify verbs, adjec- 
tives, and adverbs, just as adverbs do. 

A noun used as an adverb to express measure, distance, 
w^eight, time, and the like is an adverbial objective, and is 
in the objective case. 

Find the adverbial objectives in the following and 
tell what each modifies: 

1. He lived seventy years. 

2. The book was worth a dollar. 

3. The bicycle weighed twenty pounds. 



CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS 57 

4. The train is six coaches long. 

5. The hunters brought their game home. 

6. The tower was sixty feet high. 

7. This year old men shall reap the harvest. 

8. The sugar weighed twenty pounds. 

9. This year has been a very pleasant one. 

10. The Civil War lasted four years. 

11. We sailed a mile. 

12. He came an hour too late. 

13. The train will be here in an hour. 

14. The street measured a mile. 

15. Mary was fifteen minutes early. 

16. You should have come a day sooner. 

17. He lived a hundred and ten years. 

18. He was very tired when he reached home. 

19. The dog came home. 

20. The club sang for an hour last evening. 

STUDY 68 
Construction of Nouns 

Give the construction of the italicized words in the 
following : 

1. Benjamin Franklin was born in 1706, so that he was 
now about ten years old. (2) His father was a soap-boiler 
and tallow-chandler, and resided in Milk Street. (3) Ben was 
a bright boy at his books. — hawthorne. 

4. The child is father of the man. — wordsworth. 

5. Lawrence and Clara, where were you last nightf 

6. Where were you, Charley, and dear little Alice? 



58 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

7. Day after day, and week after week, this bird whistled 
and warbled in a mulberry by the door. 

8. The goddess never forgave the man the execution of 
that rash and cruel resolve. 

9. Offer a thoroughbred Virginia coze; /?av, and she will 
laugh in your face; but rattle the husks or shucks and she 
knows you to be her friend. 

10. Applause is the spur of noble minds, the end and a/'w 
of weak ones. 

11. Lotty, the curly terrier, was asleep at my feet. 

12. I had been sitting still a long ^i'm^ with my work. 

13. The grandmother was full of aches and />aw^ this 
morning. 

14. Every ^03;, from the inside of the lighthouse, three 
/>a/'r^ of childish cy<:'^ watched the interesting spider family. 

15. As the tiny ones grew larger, they began to build for 
themselves little webs in each corner of every pane. 

16. Heigh ho! daisies and buttercups! 

17. It was a time of peace; it was the poor mans golden 
age. 

18. Gaston called the dove Blanchctte. 

19. For his bravery they made Tim captain. 

20. Olaf, the boy oi seventeen, was crowned King, of Nor- 
way. 

21. Every day the distress became sharper; every day the 
murmurs became louder. 

22. Mrs. Crazvley, the rector's wife, was a smart litlle 
body, who wrote this worthy divine's sermons. 

23. Some ten days after the above ceremony, three young 
m^7i of our acquaintance were enjoying that beautiful prospect 
of bow windows on the one side and blue sea on the other, 
which Brighton affords the traveler. 



CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS 59 

24. I have done the state some service. — Shakespeare. 

25. But yet the pity of it, lago! O lago, the pity of it, 

lago ! SHAKESPEARE. 

26. Give thy thoughts no tongue. — shakespeare. 

27. You call me misbeliever, cut-throat, dog, 

And spit upon my Jewish gaberdine. — shakespeare. 
2S. Fair sir, you spit on me on Wednesday last ; 
You spurn'd me such a day; another time 
You called me dog; and for these courtesies 
I'll lend you thus much moneys f — shakespeare. 

29. The best of all w^ere the cozy talks we had in the 
twilight, Mamma and /, when she was rested and all the day's 
worry was over. 

30. Last December, Papa came home to dinner one day, 
exclaiming, in great glee, 'Tve found old Joe !" 

31. This winter she has plenty of time to sew, for Grand- 
papa needs little done for him except at night and morning. 

32. That kind woman made each child a good suit. 
ZZ. The boys chose him captain. 

34. They made the house a beautiful home. 

35. Time makes the worst enemies friends. 

36. Oliver Wendell Holmes called Boston "The Hub of 
the Universe." 

USES OF THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 

1. Object of Verb. 

2. Object of the Relation Expressed by a Preposi- 
tion. 

3. Appositive with a Noun in the Objective Case. 

4. Indirect Object. 



60 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

5. Objective Complement. 

6. Adverbial Objective. 

7. Objective Subject. See Study 157. 



NOUNS 



1. Kinds: 



a. Proper. 

b. Common. 

c. Collective (included in both Proper and Com- 

mon). 

2. Modifications: 

a. Number. 

(a) Singular. 

(b) Plural 

b. Gender. 

(a) Masculine. 

(b) Feminine. 

(c) Neuter. 

c. Case. 

(a) Nominative. 

(b) Possessive. 

(c) Objective. 

3. Uses of the Nominative Case: 

1. Subject. 

2. Predicate Noun or Subjective Complement. 

3. Appositive with a Noun in the Nominative 

Case. 



CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS 61 

4. Independent. 

(a) Nominative of Address. 

(b) Nominative Absolute. See Study 170. 

(c) By Exclamation. 

4. Uses of the Possessive Case: 

1. Possessive Modifier. 

2. Appositive with a Noun in the Possessive 

Case. 

5. Uses of the Objective Case: 

1. Object of a Verb. 

2. Object of the Relation expressed by a Prepo- 

sition. 

3. Appositive with a Noun in the Objective Case. 

4. Indirect Object. 

5. Objective Complement. 

6. Adverbial Objective. 

7. Objective Subject. See Study 157. 



CHAPTER V 



PRONOUNS 

STUDY 69 

The Personal Pronoun 

What is a pronoun? 

The word or group of words to which a pronoun refers 
is the antecedent of the pronoun. 

The number, gender, case, and constructions of 
pronouns are just the same as of nouns. To remem- 
ber and apply to pronouns what is known of nouns, 
will make their study very easy. 

The classes of pronouns are different from those 
of nouns and must be learned first. 

1. I shall go to-morrow. 2. Will you join us on 
our excursion? 3. They will be ready at two. 4. He 
will meet her at the car. 

Arrange the pronouns from these sentences in 
three groups: first, those denoting the speaker; 
second, the one spoken to; and, third, the person or 
persons, spoken of. 

A pronoun that shows by its form whether it denotes 
the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of, is a 
personal pronoun. 

62 



PARSING NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 63 

Pronouns that denote the speaker are said to be of the 
first person; those that denote the person spoken to are 
of the second person; and those that denote the person or 
thing spoken of are of the third person. 

Select the personal pronouns and tell which person 
each shows : 

1. You set us a good example. , 

2. She teaches us grammar. 

3. I think, my friend, you are wrong. 

4. She sat still an hour. 

5. He told us the truth. 

6. It is my pencil. 

7. She asked for their protection. 

8. Their curiosity was aroused by his story. 

9. Run ! the dog may bite you. 

10. I fed the dogs and gave them all the food they would 
eat. 

11. We found him at the mill. 

12. They swept the streets clean. 

STUDY 70 
Parsing Nouns and Pronouns 

Parse each noun and each pronoun in the above 
s'entences. The order of parsing the pronoun is the 
same as that for the noun with the addition of person 
which may be given before the other modifications. 

In the sentences above, tell the subject, the verb^ 
and the complement, if any, stating the kind of com- 
plement. 



64 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 71 
The Declension of the Personal Pronouns 

You have found that nouns sometimes change form 
to show number; as, cow, cozvs; church, churches; to 
show possessive case; as, hoy, hoy's. Pronouns have 
different forms to show person, number, gender, and 
case. Change in a form of a word to indicate a change 
in its meaning is inflection. The inflection of a noun 
or a pronoun is called declension. When one gives 
the different forms of a noun or pronoun he is said 
to decline the word. For use of pronouns see Study 
227. 

The personal pronouns with all their forms are 
these: 

First Person. 



Singular 


Fiural 




Nom. 1 


We 




Poss. my, mine 


our, ours 




Obj. me 


us 
Second Person. 




Singular 


Phiral 




Nom. you (thou) 


you (ye) 




Poss. your, yours 


(thy, thine) your, yours 




Obj. you (thee) 


you 
Third Person. 


• 




Singular 


Plural 


Masc. 


Fem. Neuter 




Nom. he 


she it 


they 


Poss. his 


her, hers its 


their, theirs 


Obj. him 


her it 


them 



THE COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUN 65 

Thou, thy or thine, thee and ye are now confined 
to more solemn and impassioned uses, especially in 
prayer and poetry, except among the Quakers. 

The two forms of the possessive case; as, my and 
mine, owr and ours, are used in different ways. In 
the first way the pronoun simply shows possession. 

This is my hat. 

Our apples are in the basket. 

In the second way the possessive form is used with 
the omission of the noun that it limits in thought. 

This is mine. 

Ours are in the basket. 

STUDY 72 
The Compound Personal Pronoun 

The personal pronouns are sometimes compounded 
with self or selves for emphasis; as, / did it myself; 
sometimes for a reflexive use, — that is, to show that 
the pronoun refers to the same person or thing as 
the subject; as, / dressed myself. The boy hurt him- 
self. 

Parse each pronoun; state which are used in a re- 
flexive way and which for emphasis: 

1. I myself will do the work. 

2. He explained the matter himself. 

3. He debases himself when he yields to temptation. 

4. Mine fell into the w^ater. 

5. You may put yours on our table. 



66 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

6. She herself set the dish on the table. 

7. They accidentally burned mine with the waste paper. 

8. His was the longest fishing rod. 

9. The book with the bright cover was theirs. 
10. See the cat wash herself ! 



STUDY 73 
The Personal Pronoun 
Fill these blanks with appropriate pronouns : 
The chickadee turns to — — insect hunting again, for 



never wastes more than a moment talking, but he twitters 

sociably as works. The smoke of camp fire has 

hardly risen to the spruce tops, when close beside sounds 

the same cheerful greeting and inquiry for health. 

comes down to the fire to see if anything has boiled over, 

which may dispose of. picks up gratefully the 

crumbs scatter at feet. trusts . See ! 

rests a moment on the finger extend, looks curiously at 

the nail, and sounds with bill to see if shelters 

any harmful insect. Then goes back to birch 

twigs. — Long. 

Thus passed a few swift years, and no longer were 

children. 

was a valiant youth, and face, like the face of the 

morning. 

Gladdened the earth with light, and ripened thought into 

action. 

was a woman now, with the heart and hopes of a woman. 



THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN 67 

"Sunshine of St. Eulalie" was called ; for that was the 

sunshine 

Which, as the farmers believed, would load orchards with 

apples. 

STUDY 74 

The Personal Pronoun 

Find ten sentences, each containing one or more 
personal pronouns. 

STUDY 75 
The Interrogative Pronoun 

1. What have you in your hand? 2. Who is at 
the door? 3. Which w^ill you have? 

What kind of sentence is each of these ? By means 
of what word in each is the question asked? What 
part of speech is each of these words? 

A pronoun by means of which a question is asked is an: 
interrogative pronoun. 

The interrogative pronouns are who, zvhich, zvhat. 
Who and zvhicJi are declined as follows : 

Singular and Plural Singular and Plural 
Nom. who which 

Poss. whose whose 

Obj. whom which 

What is not inflected to indicate case. 

State the kind and construction of each pronoun in 
the following, and tell the part of speech of each 
word : 



68 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

1. Barefoot boy, what is thy name? 

2. From whom did you receive this gift? 

3. Whom did you see at the station? 

4. What is that noise? 

5. Who comes yonder? 

6. They have claimed their customary homage. 

7. He paid me promptly. 

8. Which did you select? 

9. I will come when I have finished my lesson. 
10. Which of you w^ill go? 

STUDY 76 
Interrogative Pronouns 

Write five sentences each containing an interroga- 
tive pronoun, and write from memory the declension 
of the interrogative pronouns. 

STUDY 77 
The Demonstrative Pronoun 

1. This is my pencil; that is yours. 2. These are 
your letters; those are Margaret's. 

What part of speech are this, that, these, and those? 
Notice that this and that with their plural forms, 
these and those, seem to itidicate, or point out, some 
particular thing or group of things. 

A pronoun that is used to point out that to which it 
refers is a demonstrative pronoun. 

(Study the meaning of "demonstrate.") 



THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN 69 

The demonstrative pronouns are this, that, and their 
plurals these and those. So and such are occasionally 
used as demonstrative pronouns. 

Tell the kind and construction of each pronoun: 

1. We thought of this and found it. 

2. Those are not ripe apples. 

3. Which of the two girls is the prettier? 

4. What did you say? 

5. These are pleasant homes. 

6. That was your pencil. 

7. This was the old man's favorite tale, and he loved to 
repeat it. 

8. This is the forest primeval. 

9. I bring you smiles of pity, for such she sent. 
10. He gave a can to each. 

Write six sentences using each demonstrative pro- 
noun. 

STUDY 78 
The Indefinite Pronoun 

1. Here are pens; do you wish those? 2. No, I 
have several, any of which I can use. 

What part of speech is several? any? Compare the 
peculiar meaning or use of these two words with that 
of those in the first sentence. There is a large list of 
pronouns that refer in this indefinite way to the things 
they represent, and hence are called indefinite pro- 
nouns. 



70 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

A pronoun that does not denote any particular thing or 
group of things is an indefinite pronoun. 

The words most commonly used as indefinite pro- 
nouns are one, none, some, any, each, either, neither, 
all, both, fezv, many, much, several, aught, naught, 
such, other, another, each other, and one another. 

The pairs each other and one another may be re- 
garded as single pronouns. 

Parse each pronoun : 

1. One can go there by rail. 

2. The bright sun cast its rays about us. 

3. None of the brick houses was burned. 

4. These are Thy glorious works, Parent of Good ! 

5. Two persons help. each other; several help one another. 

6. Few shall part where many meet. 

7. Some are happy, while others are miserable. 

8. I have some, thank you. 

9. Each hurried to the rescue. 
10. He gave an orange to each. 



STUDY 79 
Construction 

Give the kind and the construction of each itali- 
cized word : 

Next day, my master, the surgeon, examined Ail'ie. It 
could be removed — it might never return — it would give her 
speedy relief — she should have it done. She curtsied, looked 



CONSTRUCTION 71 

at James, and said, ''When?" "To-morrow," said the kind sur- 
geon, a man of few words. She and James and Rab and / 
retired. / noticed that he and she spoke Httle, but seemed to 
anticipate everything in eacli other. The following day, at 
noon, the students came in. At the first landing-place, on a 
well-known blackboard was a ^?i of paper fastened by zvafers, 
and many remains of old zvafers were beside i/. ^ On the paper 
were the words, "An operation to-day. T. B., Clerk." 

Dr. John Brown. 

The little man turned sharp round, walked straight up to 
Gluck, and drew himself up to his full height. "//' said the 
little man, "am King of the Golden River." Whereupon he 
turned about again and took two more turns. Again he walked 
up to Gluck and stood still. 

Gluck determined to say something, at all events. "I hope 
your majesty is very well," said Gluck. 

"Listen!" said the little man, deigning no reply to this 
polite inquiry. "I am the king of what you mortals call the 
Golden River. The shape you saw me in was owing to the 
malice of a stronger King, from whose enchantment you have 
this instant freed me. What I have seen of you, and your 
conduct to your wicked brothers, renders me willing to serve 
you ; therefore attend to what I tell you. Whoever shall climb 
to the top of that mountain from which you see the Golden 
River issue, and shall cast into the stream at its source three 
drops of holy zvater, for him, and for him only, the river shall 
turn to gold." — ruskin. 

Hand me the book. One is lying on the table. That is the 
one I am reading. 



n STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 80 
The Relative Pronoun 

1. The boy that finishes first will tell the story. 

2. My mother, who is in Europe, writes to me often. 

3. I do not know what you mean. 

In the first sentence, find the group of words hav- 
ing a subject and a predicate and used as an adjective 
to limit hoy. In the second sentence, a like group of 
words that limits mother. In the third, a group that 
is the object of do know. 

A group of words having a subject and a predicate and 
used as one part of speech is a clause. 

What is an antecedent of a pronoun? Find the 
antecedent of that and of who. In the first sentence, 
what pronoun introduces the clause that it joins to 
its antecedent? In the second sentence, what pro- 
noun does the same work? 

A pronoun that introduces a clause which it connects 
with its antecedent is a relative pronoun. 

What is the meaning of relate? relation? relative? 

Notice that relative pronouns perform two duties, 
that of a noun and that of a conjunction. 

The relative pronouns are who, zvhich, what, and 
that. 

The relative pronoun what is peculiar in that it 
contains its own antecedent. 



THE RELATIVE PRONOUN 73 

Who and which are declined like the interrogative 
pronouns. That and zuhat are not inflected to indi- 
cate the case. 

As is sometimes a relative pronoun, and as such 
is used, generally, after same, such, and many. 

Mine is not the same as yours. 

I love such as love me. 

As many as could sing were invited. 

The peasant,* as I said before, was on his way 

to market. 

Occasionally but is a relative pronoun. 
There is no one but has heard it. 

The relative pronoun is sometimes compounded 
with ever and soever for the purpose of expressing 
greater indefiniteness. 

Whosoever will, may come. 

A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, 
number, and gender; but its case is determined by its use 
in the clause, and has nothing to do with the case of its 
antecedent. 

STUDY 81 
The Relative Pronoun 

Parse all relative pronouns in the following: 

1. This is the man that lived in the house that Jack built. 

2. She entered the sunlight which gathered her up in a 
flame. 

*Note that the antecedent of as is the sentence, The peasant was on 
his way to market. 



74 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

3. Longfellow is the poet who wrote EvangeKie. 

4. He that endureth to the end shall be saved. 

5. Many people know the value of a dollar, that do not 
appreciate the value of a hundred cents. 

6. The evil that men do lives after them. 

7. He that hesitates is lost. 

8. Everything that was beautiful and picturesque caught 
his attention. 

9. Henry Hudson discovered the river that bears his name. 

10. Everyone that heareth these sayings of mine and doeth 
them not, shall be likened unto a foolish man, who built his 
house upon the sand. 

11. Aaron Burr, who had fascinating manners, was an ad- 
venturer. 

12. Whatsoever he doeth shall prosper. 

13. There is not a man in America but has heard of George 
W^ashington. 

14. We have the letter that he wrote us. 

15. Heavy is the head that wears the crown. 

16. That man in whom we trust will not fail us. 

17. The boy whose book was lost has bought another. 

18. They wait not for such as he is. 

19. You will repent the evil that you have done. 

20. He that yields to temptation debases himself. 

21. We are interested in what you do. 

22. I saw no one but wanted to go with us. 

23. I that speak to thee am he. 

24. I hear a voice, that you cannot hear, which says I must 
not stay. 



THE RELATIVE PRONOUN 75 

25. He that would win honor must not fear dying. 

26. What is right shall be done. 

27 . Of all the beasts that begged to do him service, Claus 
liked the reindeer best. 

28. He that wrongs his friends wrongs himself more. 

29. Bring me all the books that are on the table, and all 
the pamphlets that you find on the floor. 

30. Who steals my purse steals trash. ' 

31. Rejoice with them that do rejoice and weep with them 
that weep. 

32. Awake, aw^ake, all ye that sleep ! 

7)Z. There is not a true soldier but fights bravely. 

34. Sweet nature, who can fail to see your beauty? 

^^. Once in an ancient city, whose name I no longer re- 
member, 
Raised aloft on a column, was a brazen statue of 
Justice. 

36. When the story was ended, the blacksmith 
Stood Hke a man who fain would speak. 

37. I feel the gales that from you blow. 

38. I never saw the man of whom you speak. 

39. W^here is the person with whom you studied? 

40. We speak what we do know. 

41. The girls whose lessons are learned may go out and 
play. 

42. The woman that you met is my sister. 

43. The poet who wrote that poem died last year. 

44. W^e that are well off should pity and help the poor. 

45. I wandered lonely as a cloud 

That floats on high o'er vale and hill. 



76 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

46. Its first chord was drowned by a horrible clamor that 
filled the church. 

47. She gently pushed in the door, through which she 
entered noiselessly. 

48. They asked what they liked, and got it, except from 
the poor people, who could only beg, and several of whom 
were starved at their very door, without the slightest regard 
or notice. 

49. She was walking alone through the valley of that shad- 
ow into which one day we must all enter. 

50. There was, sixthly, a little widow, who had been very 
pretty, and was still very young, but whose beauty had been 
wrecked in some great misfortune, and whose manner was 
remarkably timid, scared, and solitary. 

51. Where lies the land to which yon ship would go? 

52. I came to the stile and footpath by which I was to 
diverge from the main road. 

53. I remembered Sir Roger said there lived a very worthy 
gentleman, to whom he was highly obliged. 

54. Here, then, I parted from the companion with whom 
I set out on my journey. 



STUDY 82 
Analysis 

Be able to tell the subject, the predicate, and the 
kind of complement, if any, of each sentence and of 
each clause in the preceding study, and the part of 
speech of any word. 



THE CORRECT USE OF PRONOUNS 17 

PRONOUNS 

1. Kinds: 

a. Personal. 

h. Interrogative. 

c. Demonstrative. 

d. Indefinite. 

e. Relative. ^ 

2. Modifications: 

The same as of Nouns with Person added. 

3. Uses: 

The Same as Nouns. 

ORDER OF PARSING PRONOUNS 

1. Pronoun. 

2. Kind. 

3. Person. 

4. Number. 

5. Gender. 

6. Case. 

7. Relation. 

STUDY 83 
The Correct Use of Pronouns 

Fill each blank with the correct word-form, and 
give your reason for the selection : 

I, me 

1. Will you play tennis with Ida and ? 

2. Shall he or meet you? 



78 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 



3. Send the bundle to Margaret or 



4. It was who spoke. 

5. The driver left Phoebe and on the lawn. 

6. Her sister is older than . 

7. Was it that was invited? 

8. You are not so old as . 

9. She will go and also. 

10. Every pupil has the task except you and 



11. Mrs. Lane invited all of us, with the others. 

STUDY 84 
The Correct Use of Pronouns 

Fill each blank with the appropriate pronoun, giv- 
ing your reason : 

They, them 

1. and the boys are in the yard. 

2. Are those ? 

3. Would you rather see us or ? 

4. We gave the book to . 

5. It is . 

6. Was it — that passed? 

7. We are as brave as . 



8. Elizabeth should do the work better than 

9. These are . 

10. We read more than . 



He, him 



1. You study as much as . 

2. To that hath, shall be given. 



PARSING 79 



3. Is it ? 

4. I can do the work more quickly than 

5. There is a secret between her and — 



6. She greeted all, anions; the others. 



fe"^^"-^^' ""' CX.X.V^X^J^ 



STUDY 85 
Parsing , 

Parse the italicized words in the following: 

1. / myself will do the work. 

2. His explanation was the same os (was) mine. 

3. Yonder is the building that I described. 

4. Whom did you see at the station? 

5. Reverend walked he among them. 

6. The morn, in russet mantle clad, walks o'er the dew 
of yon high eastern hill. 

7. Every day in a man's life is a leaf in his history. 

8. / saw Stevenson, the novelist. 

9. We elected Fred Jones president of our society. 

10. The man weighed two hundred pounds. 

11. He left his brother Fred at the station. 

12. He bought the little boy a sled. 

13. Come on, my men, I will lead you. 

14. M3; course will be determined by the things that hap- 
pen to-day. 

15. 7/za^ is the right word. 

16. W^/zo is the happy zvarrior? 

17. / saw them and ^^^3; are the same as were there yes- 
terday. 

18. Take heed that you despise not one of these little ones. 



80 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

19. Which of you will go? 

20. To him who in the love of Nature holds communion 
with her visible forms, she speaks a various language. — bryant. 

21. They petted the cat and gave her no end of praise. 

STUDY 86 
The Correct Use of Pronouns 

Insert in each blank the correct form of the pro- 
noun and give your reason : 

Her, she 

1. Was it whom you met? 

2. The candy was sent to and Martha. 

3. Give it to and Mary. 

4. We can go more quietly than . 

5. I am as tall as . 

6. I saw several, among the others. 

7. All except may play. 

We, us 

1. boys will care for the material. 

2. He shook hands with the boys, among the others. 

3. The driver and will go to-morrow. 

4. girls can amuse the baby. 

5. The farmer asked to leave the field. 

STUDY 87 
The Correct Use of Pronouns 

.Insert in the blanks the correct form of the pro- 
noun, giving your reason: 



THE CORRECT USE OF PRONOUNS 



81 



1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 
10. 

Fill 

1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 
10. 



Who, whom 

did you see? 

— do you give it? 



To - 
It is 



I do not know 



you mean. 



was it that passed? 

Can you see I am ? 

I will give it to it belongs. 

will gfo with me? 



Can you think I mean? 

Joseph does not know will go. 

each blank with the proper pronoun : 

Each must work task. 

All have taken wraps. 

Every man lifted hat. 

He that would learn must study lessons. 

Each soldier lowered gun. 

Some one found hat in the hall. 

Either he or I must carry book. 

Every pupil placed hand on shoulder. 



Any one can easily keep books neat. 

Boy after boy passed with cap in — 



hand. 



CHAPTER VI 



ADJECTIVES 

STUDY 88 
The Qualitative Adjective 

What IS an adjective? 

Write five sentences each containing at least one 
adjective. 

Tell one quality of an apple, peach, paper, book, 
table. 

An adjective that expresses quality is a qualitative 
adjective. 

Margaret had a szveet and pious nature. 
• Select the qualitative adjectives in the following: 

1. Br'er Rabbit is a funny fellow. 

2. I never saw a more beautiful countenance. 

3. A gentle answer did the old man make, 

In courteous speech which forth he slowly drew. 

WORDSWORTH. 

4. Oh, my love's a red, red rose. 

5. Sweet Auburn! loveliest village of the plain, 
Where health and plenty cheered the laboring swain. 

GOLDSMITH. 

6. Darkest clouds have often a silver lining.- 

7. The bright sun cast its rays about us. 



THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE 83 

8. They pride themselves upon their royal descent. 

9. John was a brave, patriotic boy. 

10. She seems a good woman. 

11. The fence is strong, but it is not heavy. 

12. His dress was of the old clerical fashion. 

STUDY 89 
Qualitative Adjectives 

Find in books ten sentences containing qualitative 
adjectives. 

STUDY 90 
The Demonstrative Adjective 

1. I have several pens. 2. Here are a dozen pen- 
cils. 3. Fezv persons will believe that. 4. These 
books belong on the first shelf. 5. I learned the story 
in my early childhood. 6. The sun sank behind the 
zvestern horizon. 7. Yonder tree is his home. 8. 
The book is lost. 9. James is present. 10. Edith is 
here. 

What does each of the italicized adjectives express? 

An adjective that points out, or locates, or tells quantity, 
is a demonstrative adjective. 

Put into separate hsts the qualitative and the de- 
monstrative adjectives in the following sentences, and 
tell w^hat each limits : 

1. The little birds chirped as they opened their drowsy 
eyes. 



84 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

2. Twelve books were destroyed. 

3. Smooth is the water where the brook runs deep. 

4. No man can take it away. 

5. The squirrel ran to the nearest tree. 

6. Turn down the next street and it is the second house 
on the right-hand side. 

7. James is present but William is not here. 

8. In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of 
Alinas, 

Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand Pre 
Lay in the fruitful valley. 

9. Put this kid glove in the upper drawer. 

10. The thirteen colonies were now free and independent 
states. 

11. The third and the last houses in the block are near 
the street. 

12. Alas ! when evil men are strong, 
No life is good, no pleasure long. 

STUDY 91 
The Construction of Nouns and Pronouns 

Tell the kind and the construction of each noun 
and each pronoun in the above sentences. 

STUDY 92 
Classification of Adjectives 

The words zvJiich and zuJiaf are used with nouns 
in asking questions; as, Which book may I have? 
What time is it? They are, therefore, commonly 



CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES 85 

called interrogative adjectives; but since, in a certain 
sense, their use is to point out, it seems simpler to 
include them with demonstrative adjectives. 

The same applies to the possessive forms of pro- 
nouns used to limit the meaning of nouns; as, James 
lost his knife. Her ways are ways of pleasantness 
and all her paths are peace. Worship Him whose 
hand holds the stars in their places. On account of 
their use as pronouns such words are sometimes 
classed as pronominal adjectives, but it will be seen 
that their adjective use is to define or point out, so 
that in their adjective force they are demonstrative. 

Find in books or compose five sentences containing 
adjectives that denote quality, five containing adjec- 
tives that denote location, and five containing those 
that point out. 

STUDY 93 
Classification of Adjectives 
Tell the kind of each adjective in the following: 

1. Which train did you take? 

2. That large trunk is mine. 

3. What picture did you buy? 

4. These apples are ripe. 

5. Do you see that man with the scarlet cloak, white 
plume in his hat, and gold-embroidered vest? 

6. The second theory is generally held by Indians, who 
say the bank beaver is lazy. 



36 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

7. Then, on a golden autumn eventide, 
The younger people making holiday 

With bag and sack and basket, great and small, 
Went nutting to the hazels. — tennyson. 

8. So these were wed, and merrily rang the bells. 
And merrily ran the years, seven happy years, 
Seven happ}' years of health and competence, 
And mutual love and honorable toil. — tennyson. 

9. Two years after the events just recorded, a still greater 
sorrow befell this worthy family, so united and so affectionate, 
as the families of the peasantry usually are. 

10. It was in the ancient little city of Rochester in Kent, 
of all the good days in the year upon a Christmas Eve, that 
I stood reading this inscription over the quaint old door in 
question. — dickens. 

ADJECTIVES 

1. Kind: 

a. Qualitative. 

b. Demonstrative. 

STUDY 94 
Adjectives and Pronouns 

Tell w^hether the italicized words are pronouns or 
adjectives: 

1. Which book is yours? 

2. Which is yours? 

3. That bird in the cage sings sweetly. 



THE COMPARISON OF THE ADJECTIVE 87 

4. That is yours if you wish it. 

5. He knows not ivhat he says. 

6. What boat did you take? 

7. These are ripe. 

8. These stockings are too small. 

Find ten adjectives in any book you are reading, 
state what each expresses, and what it modifies. 

STUDY 95 

The Comparison of the Adjective 

A variation in the form of the adjective to express quality 
or quantity in different degrees is comparison. 

This is the inflection of an adjective. These varia- 
tions are called degrees of comparison. 

Most qualitative and a few demonstrative adjec- 
tives can be compared. 

To express a quality without reference to that 
quality in other things the positive degree is used. 

John is fall. 

Adjectives used to denote a degree of quality 
greater or less than that of some other object are in 
the comparative degree. 

Fred is taller than James. 

An adjective that expresses a quality greater or 
less than that of all other objects with which it is 
compared is in the superlative degree. 

Frank is the tallest of his class. 



88 



STUDIES IN ENGLISH 



The comparative degree is used when two things 
are compared. The superlative degree is used when 
more than two things are compared. 

Note — Adjectives are regularly compared by ad- 
ding er and est to the positive degree. Some ad- 
jectives which admit of comparison do not change 
their form, but express the greater or less degree by 
the modifying words more or less for the compara- 
tive, and most or least for the superlative ; as, famous, 
"more famous, most famous; beautiful, less beautiful, 
least beautiful; and some are compared in two w^ays ; 
as, gay, gayer, gayest, or less gay, least gay. A few 
adjectives are irregularly compared; as, good, better, 
best. Some adjectives cannot be compared because the 
quality they express is absolute; as, perfect, round, 
and the like. 

COMMON ADJECTIVES IRREGULARLY COMPARED. 



Positive 


Comparative 


Superlative 


bad, evil, ill 


worse 


worst 


far 


farther, further 


farthest, furthest 


fore 


former 


foremost, first 


good, well 


better 


best 

inmost, innermost 

latest, last 


late 


mner 
later, latter 


little 


less, lesser 


least 


many, much 


more 


most 


near 


nearer 


nearest, next 


nigh 


nigher 


nighest, next 


old 


older, elder 


oldest, eldest 




upper 


upmost, uppermost 



THE CORRECT USE OF ADJECTIVES 89 

STUDY 96 
Comparison of Adjectives 

Tell the degree of each adjective in these sentences: 

1. To-day is darker than yesterday. 

2. He chose an humble part. 

3. This apple is ripest. 

4. This is the best book I ever read. 

5. The country became rougher and the people more 
savage. 

6. A more extraordinary incident has seldom happened. 

7. On the highest part of the mountain is the oldesi 
fortress in the country. 

8. Her anger was now greater than ever. 

9. There dwelt a miller, hale and hearty. 
10. This is the warmest day of the summer. 

STUDY 97 
The Correct Use of Adjectives 

Fill the blanks with adjectives in the proper degree: 

1. Mary is than I. 

2. Which do you like , arithmetic or history? 

3. The trunk in the pile belongs to me. 

4. We took an train than our friends. 

5. When have we the and when the days of the 



year? 



6. Which is the , your pony or your bicycle? 

7. Our dog Rover is the dog in town. 



90 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

8. Every seventh wave is . 

9. Name the city in the world. 

10. The bird is perched on the bough. 



STUDY 98 
Comparison of Adjectives 

Use in sentences each degree of the following ad- 
jectives: 



pretty 


bad 


virtuous 


poHte 


good 


much 


tender 


lovely 


pleasant 


strong 


able 


narrow 


sad 


guilty 


famous 


many 


short 


ragged 


cross 


cheery 



Like, when an adjective or an adverb, is often fol- 
lowed by a noun or a pronoun in the objective case, 
an adverbial objective; as, My love's like a red, red 
rose, (adj.) He speaks like a Frenchman, (adv.) 



STUDY 99 
Uses of Adjectives 

1. Direct Modifier of a Noun or a Pronoun. 

She opened her new book. 

2. Subjective Complement (often called predicate 
adjective). 

The brown horse is fat. 



USES OF ADJECTIVES 91 

3. Objective Complement. 

They planed the board smooth. 

4. Substantive. That is, as a noun, where the noun 

which it modifies in thought is not expressed. 

Large and small, old and young are invited. 

State the use of each adjective in the following: 

1. The man painted the old house red. 

2. The day is stormy. 

3. Jupiter is the largest of the planets. 

4. They were late. 

5. What city is that? 

6. The ship glided by the southern bank. 

7. Mary seems happy. 

8. The train is six coaches long. 

9. He became famous. 

10. The vine still clings to the moldering wall. 

11. They all fled and left the town deserted. 

12. The ripest are the best. 

13. He carries his head high. 

14. She wrings the clothes dry. 

ORDER OF PARSING ADJECTIVES 

1. Adjective. 

2. Kind. 

3. Comparison. 

4. Use. 



92 



STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

FORM FOR TABULATION 

A good dog. 
He made the second story short. 



Adjective 


Kind 


Comparison 


Use 




qualitative 


Tpos. 


comp. 


superl. 




good 


good 


better 


best 


Hmits the 
meaning of dog 


second 


demons. 








limits the 
meaning of story 


short 


qual. 


short 


shorter 


shortest 


objective 
comp. of made 
and limits story 



STUDY 100 
Parsing. 

In the following sentences, tell the subject, the verb, 
and the complement, if any, stating the kind of com- 
plement, and parse the italicized words : 

1. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 

2. There is a great difference between knowledge and 
wisdom. 

3. The quickness of the blow allowed no dodging. 

4. Johns anger was felt. 

5. The skating is fine to-day. 

6. A little learning is a dangerous thing. 

7. The sight was disagreeable to me. 

8. They shook the depth of the desert gloom, 
With their hymns of lofty cheer. 

9. Their mastiffs are of unmatchable courage. 

10. Books, painting, fiddling, and shooting were my amuse- 
ments. 



PARSING 93 

11. The neighing of the general's horse was heard. 

12. Aly father gave me honor. 

13. The men explained their purpose. 

14. She is like her mother. 

15. She must keep the water cold. 

16. One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. 

17. Sooner shall they drink the ocean dry. 

18. We kept the children happy. 

19. Your sister looks like you. 

20. Like his brother, he was much surprised at the sight 
of the glacier. 

21. Never was such a cloak; every fold in it ran like a 
gutter. 

22. They swept the street clean. 

ADJECTIVES 

1. Kinds: 

a. Qualitative. 

b. Demonstrative. 

2. Modifications: 
a. Comparison. 

(a) Positive. 

(b) Comparative. 

(c) Superlative. 

3. Uses: 

a. Direct Modifier of Noun or Pronoun. 

b. Subjective Complement. 

c. Objective Complement. 

d. Adjective used Substantively. 



CHAPTER VII 



ADVERBS 

STUDY 101 
Uses of the Adverb 

1. He plays skillfully. 2. This invention is wholly 
new. 3. He plays very skillfully. 

What is an adverb? In these three sentences find 
the adverbs and tell what each modifies. 

Write twelve sentences, four containing adverbs 
that modify verbs, four having adverbs that modify 
adjectives, and four having those that modify other 
adverbs. 



STUDY 102 
The Classification of Adverbs 

According to the peculiar meaning each expresses, 
adverbs are divided into several classes. 

A. Place. 

An adverb of place answers the question where. 

Put the book anyzvhere. 
You may play here. 

94 



THE CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS 95 

B. Time. 

An adverb of time answers the question when. 

We will sing this song again, to-morrow. 
Will you come soon? 

C. Manner. 

An adverb of manner answers the question how. 

The mills of God grind slozvly. 
She rides a horse zvell. 

D. Degree. 

An adverb of degree answers the question how much. 

The voyage was exceedingly stormy. 
He can run very fast. 

E. Cause. 

An adverb of cause answers the question why. 

Consequently he fell. 

Accordingly the men declined to go. 

F. Assertion and Denial. 

Adverbs of assertion or denial affirm or deny. 

Yes, you may go. 
No, you may not go. 

Tell the kind of each adverb in the following: 

1. She cried timidly. 

2. She went so quietly that we did not hear her. 

3. He paid me promptly. 



96 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

4. Darkest clouds often have a silver lining. 

5. That majestic rock was once an Indian stronghold. 

6. Why are the waters blue? 

7. The vine still clings to the moldering wall. 

8. Near to the bank of the river, 

Stood, secluded and still, the house of the herdsman. 

9. Ben's fame was already pretty well known to the 
inhabitants. 

10. Who comes yonder? 

11. Solemnly down the street came the parish priest. 

12. Strongly built were the rafters. 

13. We cannot go now. 

14. The council met yesterday. 

15. He walked rapidly. 

16. The lesson w^as very long. 

17. Therefore he could not go. 

18. It was almost too late. 

19. Where are you going? 

20. The smoke rose slowly. 

21. How many people were there? 

22. The wind blew very boisterously. 

23. They approached very slowly. 

24. Alfred the Great was a very good man. 

25. He ran like a deer. 

STUDY 103 
Parsing Adverbs 

Adverbs are compared in the same way as adjec- 
tives. 



USES OF THE ADVERB 97 

In the last study parse all adverbs. The order of 
parsing adverbs is the same as that of parsing ad- 
jectives. 

STUDY 104 
Uses of the Adverb 

Find ten sentences each containing at least one ad- 
verb. Include as many different uses of the adverb 
as you can. 

ADVERBS 

1. Kinds: 

a. Place. 

b. Time. 

c. Manner. 

d. Degree. 

e. Cause. 

f . Assertion and Denial. 

g. Conjunctive. See Study 117. 

2. Modification:^ 
a. Comparison. 

3. Uses: 

To Modify 

a. Verbs. 

b. Adjectives. 

c. Adverbs. 



CHAPTER VIII 



PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES 

STUDY 105 
The Prepositional Phrase 

1. The truthful man is always respected. 2. The 
man of truth is respected at all times. In the first 
sentence, what part of speech is truthful? ahvaysf 
In the second, what words take the place of truthful 
in the first sentence? of always? 

A group of words, doing the work of one part of speech,, 
not containing a subject and a predicate, is a phrase. 

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, the 
word or words which it brings into relation with 
some other part of the sentence, and the modifiers of 
these words. 

A prepositional phrase may be used adjectively, ad- 
verbially, or independently. In rare instances a prep- 
ositional phrase is used substantively, that is, as a 
noun, e. g., Over the fence is out. 

Phrases are sometimes modified by a word express- 
ing degree. 

98 



PARSING PREPOSITIONS 99 

This story is more to my liking than that. 
Find each prepositional phrase in the following and 
state its use : 

1. Over the city a tempest rose; and the bolts of thunder 
Smote the statue of bronze, and hurled in wrath from 

its left hand, 
Down to the pavement below, the clattering scales of 

the balance. 
And in the hollow thereof was found the nest of a 

magpie, 
Into whose clay-built walls the necklace of pearls was. 

woven. 

2. *She walked out of the house. 

3. According to the calendar this is true. 

4. That merry party is on the lake. 

5. As for that story, I do not believe it. 



STUDY 106 
Parsing Prepositions 

To parse a preposition it is only necessary to state 
between what words it shows relation. 

' From some book make a list of twenty preposi- 
tions and parse them. 

*Sometimes the preposition consists of two or more words; as^ 
out of, in regard to, according to, in place of, up to, in front of, etc. 



100 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

Some prepositions are, in a way, part of the verb. 

The girl came to after a long faint. 

(The girl revived after a long faint.) 

He drew up a legal document. 

(He wrote a legal document.) 

A legal document was drawn up by him. 

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES ARE USED AS*. 

(a) Adjectives. 

(b) Adverbs. 

(c) Independent Elements. 



CHAPTER IX 



SENTENCES AND CLAUSES 

STUDY 107 
The Classification of Sentences 

1. The child gathered shells along the seashore. 

2. May and her mother went to the seaside. 

3. The sun lights and warms the earth. 

4. The boys and girls gathered and kept the shells. 

In these sentences find each subject and each predi- 
cate. Notice that in 2 and 4 each subject has two 
parts of equal value, and in 3 and 4 each predicate has 
two parts equal in value. A subject or a predicate 
having two or more parts of equal value is compound. 

A sentence with one subject and one predicate either 
or both of which may be compound is a simple sentence. 

1. The door was softly opened and a little girl 
peeped in. 

2. The rains descended and the floods came and 
the winds blew. 

3. He came; he saw; he conquered. 

In each of these three statements, how many simple 
sentences can you find? 

101 



102 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

A sentence composed of two or more complete sentences 
is a compound sentence.''' 

Usually the parts of a compound sentence are joined by conjunctions. 

1. Here is a boy who is brave. 2. The boys were 
fishing where the rushes grew. 3. He knew the end 
was near. 

What is a clause? (Study 80.) Find a clause in 
each of these sentences. Each clause is used as what 
part of speech? A clause is always used as an ad- 
jective, an adverb, or a noun. 

A sentence containing one or more clauses is a complex 
sentence. 

Clauses introduced by when or where may be ad- 
jective or adverbial in use; as. This is the house 
where I was born. The boys are fishing zvhere the 
rushes grow. We shall sail when the moon is up. 
Come any time zvhen you are ready. 

Write three examples of each kind of sentence. 

Authors who classify adverb clauses treat them the 
same as adverbs. 

STUDY 108 
Analysis 

In the following, tell the kind of sentence and state 
each clause and its use: 

A clause must have a subject and a predicate. 

*If any part of a compound sentence is complex the whole is said to 
be compound-complex. 



ANALYSIS 103 

1. The fence is strong, but it is not heavy. 

2. A cunning man was the cobbler, 

He could call the birds from the trees, 
Charm the black snake out of the ledges 
And bring back the swarming bees. 

3. They chose him, but they did not succeed in elect- 
ing him, 

4. They had gone before you came. 

5. We call a boy a hero when he can overcome tempta- 
tion. 

6. None but the brave deserves the fair. 

7. The piece that he recited was written by his mother. 

8. Carve every word before you let it fall. 

9. Ye winds, that move over the mighty spaces of the 
West, chant his requiem. 

10. He that endureth to the end shall be saved. 

'11. He liveth long who liveth well. 

12. He that would search for pearls must dive below. 

13. I saw the field where the battle was fought. 

14. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon the lake ! 

15. I will tell you a secret when I see you. 

16. He arrived after we had left. 

17. I remember, I remember the house where I was born, 
The little window where the sun came peeping in at 

morn. 

18. When the sun rose, the flag was still there. 

19. Fear nothing, but hope for all things. 

20. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 

21. I will not make a noise lest I disturb you. 

22. If I should strike him, he would fall. 



104 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

23. If thy right eye offend thee, pluck it out. 

24. It was necessary to halt for three days, that the army 
might collect food. 

25. The barometer foretells the storm while the skies 
are clear. 

26. The boys came back at twelve, when the school was 
over. 

27. The fir tree grew in the forest, where the warm sun 
and the fresh air made a sweet resting place. 

28. He led her to a tree that was laden with fruit, so that 
the boughs bent with the weight. 

29. Not a bird was seen, and not a sunbeam could penetrate 
through the trees. 

30. When the spring is late in Norway and the heat comes 
suddenly, the mountain streams plunge with a tremendous 
noise down into the valleys. 

31. The boys' faces grew very grave as they started out 
on this dangerous expedition. 

32. There were some who would have been glad to stay 
at home. 

33. Through all the pleasant meadow-side, 

The grass grew shoulder high 
Till the shining scythe went far and wide. 
And cut it down to dry. 

34. The captain, who had been the source of our discom- 
fort, was gone where he could not trouble us. 

35. Many people had passed before Mr. Brown saw the 
face that he was expecting. 

36. With a bound that nearly knocked the official over, the 
dog dashed toward his mistress. 



ANALYSIS 105 

37. Flowers were blooming in every garden, the leaves 
were fresh and green, and the only hint of the close of the 
year lay in the size and color of the fruit on the boughs. 

38. These Indians were good farmers and miners when 
they were not at war. 

39. In the days when they carried the silver to the settle- 
ments they could be trusted. 

40. The island was thick with savages, with whom we 
fought. 

41. The famous chief was killed while he was trying to 
escape from the soldiers. 

42. Some of them had seen my father, who was guarding 
the horses. 

43. He could see them from the rocks where he lay. 

44. On Linden, when the sun was low. 
All bloodless lay the untrodden snow, 
And dark as winter was the flow 

Of Iser, rolling rapidly. 

But Linden saw another sight, 
When drum beat at dead of night, 
Commanding fires of death to light 
The darkness of her scenery. 

Few, few shall part where many meet ! 
The snow shall be their winding-sheet. 
And every turf beneath their feet 
Shall be a soldier's sepulchre. 

45. It was the time when lilies blow, 

And clouds are highest up in air, 

Lord Ronald brought a lily white doe 

To give to his cousin, Lady Clare. 



106 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

46. Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note. 

As his corse to the rampart we hurried; 
Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot 
O'er the grave where our hero we buried. 

47. I thought of a mound in sweet Auburn 

Where a little headstone stood; 
How the flakes were folding it gently, 

As did robins the babes in the wood. ' 

48. A Navajo will never enter a house in which death has 
been, and his wild domain is full of huts abandoned forever. 

49. In a corner of the Navajo country, too, is another 
curiosity of which few Americans are aware — a catacomb of 
genuine mummies ! 

50. There is only one case in which the Navajos will 
meddle with a bear. 

51. Sometimes you may meet a grim-looking man on the 
street, dressed in black tights, a short cloak, and a high hat, 
from which a long black streamer is flying. 

52. On a certain occasion a banquet was given, at which 
were present two noted Dutch noblemen, rivals in power, 
who had several old grudges to settle. 

STUDY 109 
Construction of Words and Phrases 

In the preceding sentences give the construction 
of such words and phrases as your teacher may di- 
rect. Be able to tell the subject, the verb, and the 
kind of complement, if any, in each sentence. 



THE USES OE THE NOUN CLAUSE 107 

STUDY 110 
Classification of Sentences 

Find or compose ten simple sentences, and ten com- 
pound sentences. 

STUDY 111 
Classification of Clauses 

Find five complex sentences having clauses used 
as adjectives. 

Find five complex sentences having clauses used 
as adverbs. 

STUDY 112 
The Uses of the Noun Clause 

Clauses used as nouns, sometimes called substan- 
tive clauses, may be : 

1. Subject. 

That you zvill regret this is my prophecy. 

2. Predicate Noun. 

His opinion is that war brings honor. 

3. Object. 

I hope that this may be true. 

4. Appositive. 

Her promise, that she would go, was not kept. 

5. Used v^ith a Preposition. 
They were guided by what he said. 



108 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

6. Objective Complement. 

They made him zvhat he ought to be. 
State the use of each noun clause in the following: 

1. I slept and dreamed that life is beauty; I woke and 
found that life is duty. 

2. ''What does this mean?" thought the tree. 

3. He fears that his father will ask what he has done. 

4. That you will be sorry some day is my prophecy. 

5. I wish it were in my power to help you. 

6. He is a careful observer of what goes on around him. 

7. It is easy to find reasons why other people should be 
patient. 

8. I do not know when I shall start. 

9. I hope he may succeed. 

10. I wish that I might hear that song once more. 

11. Do you not wish you could get it? 

12. He tells me that he can swim. 

13. His wish is that he may go to college. 

14. The wish, that he may go to college, is praiseworthy. 

15. You know that the worst place for the fugitives was 
England. 

16. "O ho!" cried the snow king, 'T shall speed over the 
world, and tell them you are coming." 

17. Tom sat upon the buoy and wondered when the water- 
babies would come back. 

18. He asked the strange things that came out of the sea 
whether they had seen any. 

19. He looked anxiously at the river, for he knew that 
there was danger of a flood. 



CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS AND PHRASES 109 

20. I am telling you the truth when I say that it was an 
easy cHmb. 

21. It happened that the spider had spun a web over the 
end of the log where he crouched. 

22. He listened to their report, that the owner of the 
ranch was a kind man and would give them shelter when 
he heard their story. 

23. That night Norse dreamed that a spirit came to him 
and said, ''Norse, thou shalt live forever in thy son Claus." 

24. The promise that they would always obey him was 
never broken. 

25. 'T am filled with such amazement that I can hardly 
speak," said the cedar. 

26. Presently they thought they heard music, and they 
were not mistaken, for soon the air was full of the sweetest 
harmonies. 

27. ''What beautiful music !" was the cry of the little 
tree. 

28. It is true that the little vine was greatly terrified. 

29. The answer that the angel made was, "I stay to guard 
this little tree." 

30. They understood little of what he said. 

31. I remembered Sir Roger said there lived a very worthy 
gentleman to whom he was much obliged. 

STUDY 113 
Construction of Words and Phrases 

In the above sentences give the construction of 
such words and phrases as your teacher may direct. 
Prepare to tell the subject, the verb, and the kind of 
complement, if any, of each sentence and clause. 



no STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 114 
Noun Clauses 

Write or find five sentences with clauses used as 
nouns. 

STUDY 115 
Adjectives and Clauses 

State the kind and use of each adjective and the 
use of each clause: 

1. Whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are 
honest, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things are pure, 
whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good 
report — think on these things. 

2. He asked which among them was the lord governor. 

3. I do not know which book you mean. 

4. Take whichever book you w^ish. 

5. The young man replied that he might take his head 
itself if he wanted to, for he had saved his life. 

6. What followed was in perfect harmony with the be- 
ginning. 

7. Who builds a church to God, and not to fame, 
Will never mark the marble with his name. 

8. Why me the stern usurper spared, I knew not. 

9. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much ; 
Wisdom is humble that he knows no more. 

10. For those that fly may fight again. 
Which he can never do that's slain. 



ADJECTIVES AND CLAUSES 111 

In the sentences in Study 81 find as many clauses 
as your teacher may direct, and state the kind and use 
of each. What kind of clause is introduced by a rel- 
ative pronoun? 

SENTENCES ARE CLASSIFIED 

1. As to form: 

a. Simple. 

b. Compound. 

c. Complex. 



CLAUSES 



1. Kinds: 

a. Adjective. 

b. Adverb. 

c. Noun or Substantive. 

Uses of Noun Clauses: 

a. Subject. 

b. Predicate Noun. 

c. Object. 

d. Appositive. 

e. Used with a Preposition. 

f. Objective Complement. 



CHAPTER X 



CONJUNCTIONS 

STUDY 116 
The Co-ordinate Conjunction 

1. Jack an(i Jill went up the hill. 

2. The cat ran down the steps and into the house. 

3. His father had died, and his mother had moved 

into the country. 

What is a conjunction? Find the conjunction in 
each of these sentences and tell what it joins. 

A conjunction that connects words, phrases, clauses, or 
sentences of equal rank is a co-ordinate conjunction. 

Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers. 

(Note. — Conjunctions often occur in pairs; as, both — and, not only 
— but, either — or, neither — nor, and the Hke, hence are called correlative 
conjunctions.) 

Both John and James are coming. 

Find the co-ordinate conjunctions in the following 
sentences and tell what each joins : 

1. My soul is sad and afflicted. 

2. Slowly, slowly, slowly the days succeeded each other, 
Days and weeks and months. 

112 



THE SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTION 113- 

3. Forty years of my life have I labored among you and 

taught you, 
Not in word alone but in deed, before one another. 

4. The way being very short and very plain, I had come 
prosperously to the inscription and the quaint old door. 

5. Two or three birds flew from the enclosure. 

6. Neither the cloth nor the thread is suitable. 

7. Either the red or the black pencil will do. 

STUDY 117 

The Subordinate Conjunction 
A conjunction that connects a clause with that on which 
it depends, is a subordinate conjunction. 

The violet would not be willing to go to sleep if 
she thought she would not waken. 

Some words have the double nature of adverb and 
conjunction. 

An adverb that not only modifies the meaning of a verb, 
an adjective, or an adverb in a clause, but also connects 
that clause with another part of the sentence, is a con- 
junctive adverb. 

You may recite when you are prepared. 

When modifies are prepared and joins the clause 
when you are prepared with the verb may recite. 

Care must be taken to distinguish between a sub- 
ordinate conjunction when the clause tells time and 
the like, and the conjunctive adverb. A conjunctive 
adverb always relates to some word, expressed or 



114 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

understood, which stands to it in the same sort of 
relation as the antecedent to a relative pronoun. 
UNFotice the resemblance in the connecting force in the 
following : 

I see zvho it is. 

I see zvhere it fell. 

I know when he will come. 

Write, or find in a book, ten sentences containing 
subordinate conjunctions. 

STUDY 118 
Classification of Conjunctions 

Conjunctions are sometimes used simply to intro- 
duce clauses. 

That I cannot recite is evident. 

Select the connectives and tell the kind and use 
of each. Tell the kind and use of each clause. 

1. She saw the moon as it came from the folds of the 
clouds. 

2. Neither John nor Mary came this morning. 

3. We loved her because she was kind. 

4. Either you or Imust work. 

5. Painful the task is I do, which to you I know must 

be grievous. 
Yet must I bow and obey, and deliver the will of our 

monarch ; 
Namely, that all your lands, and dwellings, and cattle 

of all kinds 



CLASSIFICATION OF CONJUNCTIONS 115 

Forfeited be to the crown; and that you yourselves 

from this province 
Be transported to other lands. — longfellow. 

6. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 

7. I came that I might see for myself. 

8. She is as tall as her mother. 

9. When the oldest cask is opened, 

And the largest lamp is lit ; 
When the chestnuts glow in the embers, 

And the kid turns on the spit; 
When young and old in circle 

Around the firebrands close; 
When the girls are weaving baskets 

And the lads are shaping bows ; 
When the goodman mends his armor. 

And trims his helmet's plume ; 
When the goodwife's shuttle merrily 

Goes flashing through the loom, — 
With weeping and with laughter 

Still is the story told, 
How well Horatius kept the bridge 

In the brave days of old. — macaulay. 

10. Since I learned of your trouble, I have tried to help 
you. 

11. That he is honest is beyond question. 

12. I despise you; nevertheless I pity you. 

13. Many a year is in its grave since I crossed the rest- 
less wave. 

14. You have no money ; moreover, you are in debt. 



116 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

15. He not only ran away, but took the lunch with him. 

16. He is strong yet gentle. 

17. That she loves her child is shown by every act. 

CONJUNCTIONS 

Kinds: 

a. Co-ordinate. 

b. Subordinate. 

ORDER OF PARSING 

1. Conjunction. 

2. Kind. 

3. Use (what it connects). 

KINDS OF CONNECTIVES 

1. Conjunctions. 

2. Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns. 

3. Conjunctive Adverbs. 

STUDY 119 
Parsing 
Parse the italicized words : 

1. In that country, there are many miles of sandy desert. 

2. It is said that he can detect water long before it is 
in sight. 

3. "My mission," said Mr. Rarey, *'is to teach men that 
kindness, politeness, and firmness must be used in the man- 
agement of horses." 



USES OF "BUT" 117 

4. Ye winds that move over the mighty spaces of the 
West, chant his requiem. 

5. ''That is not the way to train a watchdog," said his 
uncle. 

6. The kennel is raised on blocks so tJiat it will not be 
damp, and there is a platform in front of it for hot nights. 

7. He liked that very much. 

8. 'T suppose you know," said Uncle Frank, ''that a dog 
needs vegetable food and that he cannot keep well without it." 

9. "He perspires through his tongue," said Uncle Frank. 
"That is why it is so cruel to put a muzzle over a dog's 
mouth." 

10. Chum knows that when the bicycle goes, he must stay 
at home. 

11. "That is a good thing to remember," said the boy's 
uncle. 

12. It is your thoughtfulness that has made Chum such 
a fine dog. 

13. He seems to think that he has a good master, and I, 
think so too. 

14. That picture is the famous one. 

15. He told Schwartz all tJiat had happened. 

In how many ways has the v/ord that been used? 

STUDY 120 
Uses of "But" 

State the part of speech and the construction of 
but in each sentence : 



118 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

1. Every member of the family but me went. 

2. There is no one but believes it. 

3. It never rains but it pours. 

4. Do but speak what thou'lt have me do. 

5. If I could but go ! 

6. When I was young, I thought of nothing else but 
pleasure. 

7. There is no fireside, howso'er defended, but has one 
vacant chair. 

8. Nothing useless is, or low ; 

Each thing in its place is best ; 
And what seems but idle show 

Strengthens and supports the rest. 

9. The farmers grew impatient, but a few 
Confessed their error and would not complain. 

10. We see but dimly through the mists and vapors. 

But IS used as how many parts of speech? When 
but is an adverb it generally means only; when a 
preposition, except, 

STUDY 121 
Varied Uses of Words 
Write sentences containing: 

1. Who used as (1) relative pronoun; (2) interrogative 
pronoun. 

2. Which used as (1) interrogative pronoun; (2) relative 
pronoun. 

3. What used as (1) interrogative pronoun; (2) relative 
pronoun. 



ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION 119 

4. As used as a relative pronoun. 

5. Whoez'er used as a relative pronoun. 

6. Whichever used as a relative pronoun. 

STUDY 122 
Analysis and Construction 

Tell the kind of each sentence as to form and use. 
Tell the kind and use of each clause. Tell the use 
of each prepositional phrase. Prepare to give the con- 
struction of every word except the verbs, and the 
nouns, flag, time, and nature. 

By the rude bridge that arched the flood, 

Their flag to April's breeze unfurled, 
Here once the embattled farmers stood, 

And fired the shot heard round the world. 

The foe long since in silence slept; 

Alike the conqueror silent sleeps; 
And Time the ruined bridge has swept 

Down the dark stream which seaward creeps. 

On this green bank, by this soft stream, 

We set to-day a votive stone. 
That memory may their deed redeem, 

When, like our sires, our sons are gone. 

Spirit, that made those heroes dare 

To die, and leave their children free, 
Bid Time and Nature gently spare 

The shaft we raise to them and thee. 

EMERSON. 



120 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 123 
Analysis and Construction 

Tell the same things here as in Study 122. 

I shot an arrow into the air, 
It fell to earth, I knew not where; 
For, so swiftly it flew, the sight 
Could not follow it in its flight. 

I breathed a song into the air, 
It fell to earth, I knew not where; 
For who has sight so keen and strong 
That it can follow the flight of song? 

Long, long afterward, in an oak 
I found the arrow, still unbroke; 
And the song, from beginning to end, 
I found again in the heart of a friend. 

LONGFELLOW. 

STUDY 124 

Analysis and Construction 

Follow the directions for Study 122.* 
My heart leaps up when I behold 

A rainbow in the sky : 
So was it when my life began; 
So is it now I am a man ; 
So be it when I shall grow old, 

Or let me die ! 
The Child is father of the Man; 
And I could wish my days to be 
Bound each to each by natural piety. 

.^ . , , WORDSWORTH. 

'■'Omit inc and days. 



ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION 121 

STUDY 125 
Analysis and Construction 

Treat the same as Study 122. 

I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers, 

From the seas and the streams ; 
I bear Hght shades for the leaves when laid 

In their noonday dreams ; 
From my wings are shaken the dews that waken 

The sweet buds every one, 
When rocked to rest on their mother's breast, 

As she dances about the sun ; 
I wield the flail of the lashing hail, 

And whiten the green plains under; 
And then again I dissolve in rain, 

And laugh as I pass in thunder. 

— SHELLEY. 

STUDY 126 
Analysis and Construction 

Treat the same as Study 122. 

I wandered lonely as a cloud 

That floats on high o'er vales and hills, 

When all at once I saw a crowd, 
A host of golden daffodils ; 

Beside the lake, beneath the trees, 

Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. 

Continuous as the stars that shine 

And twinkle on the milky way, 
They stretched in never-ending Hne 

Along the margin of a bay : 
Ten thousand saw I at a glance. 
Tossing their heads in sprightly dance. 



122 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

The waves beside them danced ; but they 
Outdid the sparkling waves in glee: 

A poet could not but be gay, 
In such a jocund company: 

I gazed — and gazed — but little thought 

What wealth the show to me had brought : 

For oft, when on my couch I lie 

In vacant or in pensive mood. 
They flash upon that inward eye 

Which is the bliss of solitude; 
And then my heart with pleasure fills 
And dances with the daffodils. 

— WORDSWORTH. 

STUDY 127 
Elliptical Sentences 

After than and as, clauses are often shortened. 
Complete the thought in each of these sentences and 
give the construction of the itaHcized words : 

1. He is better than /. 

2. He is as tall as /. 

3. He is older than you think. 

4. She was as gay as ever. 

5. Love thy neighbor as thyself. 

6. She is as good as he. 

7. Do not associate with such as he. 

8. Stone walls do not a prison make, 
Nor iron bars a. cage. 

9. They tell us, sir, that we are weak, — unable to cope with 
so formidable an adversary. But when shall we be stronger f 
Will it be the next zveek, or the next year? Will it be zvhcn 
we are totally disarmed, and when a British guard shall be 
stationed in every house? — Patrick henry. 



FORM FOR ANALYSIS 123 

STUDY 128 

Form for Analysis 

The separation of a sentence into its parts in order to 
show its structure is analysis. 

In this book analysis was begun in Study 6 with 
the division of the sentence into subject and predi- 
cate. It has been continued at regular intervals step 
by step as new elements of the sentence have been 
studied. If the preceding work has been done thor- 
oughly the detailed analysis of ordinary sentences 
should now be possible. 

Many devices for representing analysis are in use. 
The plan here given seems as simple and definite as 
any. 

Short sentences may be written in the usual way, 
the words numbered above, the use and construction 
of the parts indicated below. 



12 3 4 5 6 


7 8 


9 


The crowd at the bank extended 


across the 


street. 


adj. subj.n. adj. pred. verb 


adv. 




2 6 2 2 


6 




A simple declarative sentence. 






12 3 4 


5 


6 


He liveth long who 


liveth 


well. 


sub j. pro. pred. verb adv. sub j. pro. 


pred. verb 


adv. 


2 12 5 


4 


5 



adj. cl. 1, 
A complex declarative sentence. 



A^ 



124 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

For longer and more complicated sentences a tabu- 
lar arrangement of the same plan may present the 
facts more clearly. 

This little book of poems that you so admire was published 
two years earlier than you told me. 

1 This adj. 3 

2 little o .adj. 3 

3 book „ . .subj. 10 

4 of .1 .. ^ 

r -adj. 3 

5 poems j 

6 that rel. pro. A and 3 obj. 9 

7 you pro. subj. 9 

8 so adv. 9 

9 admire pred. verb 7 

10 was published. . . . pred. verb 3 

11 two adj. 12 

12 years adv. obj. 13 

13 earlier adv. 10 

14 than conj. B and 13 

rl5 you subj. pro. 16 

bJi6 told pred. verb 15 

[l7 me obj. 16 

A complex declarative sentence. 

A. Adjective clause 3. B. Adverb clause 13. 

STUDY 129 
Analysis 

So far as seems necessary to supplement the work 
already done in analysis, the following sentences may 
be used according to the preceding form or any other 
the teacher prefers. 



ii 



(I 



ANALYSIS 125 

1. The young lad has done his work well. 

2. After dinner you may play in the garden. 

3. Yesterday, the cat with the white tail caught five mice. 

4. My rambles soon led me to the church, which stood a 
little distance from the village. 

5. Withhold not thy tender mercies from us. 

6. On the bank, the crowd soon became unmanageable. 

7. The crowd on the bank was too great for comfort. 

8. Though old and weak, he was still leader of his party. 

9. It was about two feet deep and six feet square, and 
over it was constructed an arbor of boughs with four openings. 

10. They toil not, neither do they spin. 

11. He said it was true, nevertheless I am not satisfied. 

12. The sound of horses' hoofs was heard in the distance. 

13. We found ourselves in an absolutely French region. 

14. You have forfeited your claim ; notwithstanding, I will 
not insist upon my just right. 

15. The man who was the subject of all this comment did 
not speak a word. 

16. The man was badly hurt by the overturning of the 
carriage ; moreover, the horse was killed on the spot. 

17. With merry songs we mock the wind 
That in the pine top grieves. 

And slumber long and sweetly 
On beds of oaken leaves. 

18. He is not all he should be. 

19. The money you lost has all been recovered. 

20. 'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view. 

21. He won the same race that I did last year. 

22. He has the means whereby he may accomplish it. 

23. Make me savoury meat such as I love. 



126 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

24. They won the game, as was fully expected. 

25. Have you the means wherewith you can purchase it? 

26. This above all, to thine own self be true, 

27. Never yet was noble man but made ignoble talk. 

28. "The stars look down upon us like so many bright 
eyes," said he as he turned toward the house. 

29. 'Tis education forms the common mind. 

30. I feel the gales that from ye blow, 
Ye distant spires, ye antique towers 
That crown the watery glade, 
Where grateful science still adores 
Her Henry's holy shade. 

31. You little know how much you have hurt me. 

32. Have you heard if there is any news from the seat of 
war? 

33. I have sinned in that I have betrayed innocent 
blood. 

34. The result is the same however you do it. 

35. ''Many years ago," he began, as he passed the pipe to 
uncle, "we traveled from the Otter-tail to Minnewaken." 

36. My hair is gray, but not with years, 

Nor grew it white 
In a single night. 
As men's have grown from sudden fears. 

37. Whither thou goest I will go; and where thou lodgest 
I will lodge. 

38. An idler is a watch that wants both hands, 
As useless if it goes as when it stands. 

39. Now that their distress was over, they forgot that he 
had returned to them. 

40. The door led into a passage out of which opened four 
sleeping rooms. 



CHAPTER XI 



VERBS 

STUDY 130 
Voice 

1. The boy broke the window. 2. The window 
was broken by the boy. 3. The cat killed the mouse. 
4. The mouse was killed by the cat. 5. I ate the 
apple. 6. The apple was eaten by me. 

What is a verb? What is a subject of a verb? 

From the above sentences make a list of the sub- 
jects that are represented as acting; another list of 
those that represent the subject as acted upon. Notice 
the difference in the form of the verbs used. 

That form of a verb that shows whether the subject acts 
or is acted upon indicates voice. 

When the subject acts, the verb is in the active voice. 

When the subject is acted upon, the verb is in the pas- 
sive voice. 

Tell whether the verbs in the following sentences 
are in the active or in the passive voice : 

1. Mabel dropped the kitten. 

2. The cage of white mice was thrust before her eyes by 
Solomon. 

127 



128 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

3. Solomon slipped a knife around the edge of the pud- 
ding. 

4. The pudding is always made by the mother the day 
before Thanksgiving. 

5. Solomon loved mischief. 

6. She was taken from the water and carried to the house. 

7. Yes, he owns the mill. 

8. A gay-colored throng covered the shore. 

9. He was much troubled, of course, by the thought of 
going to bed in this way. 

10. Very little was said about the disappearance of the 
falcon. 

11. Bernard noticed the work outside. 

12. As he approached the house, Bernard met Raymond. 

13. Theseus and his companion were led to the king's pal- 
ace and ushered into his presence. 

14. Other great elephants are known to the geologist. 

15. Just before midnight the door was softly unbarred. 

STUDY 131 
Change of Voice 

Change the voice of each verb in the preceding 
sentences. 

STUDY 132 
The Retained Object 

1. I told him a story. 

2. He was told a story by me. 

In changing (1) to (2) the indirect object, hhn, 
has become the subject of the verb in the passive 



THE TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERB 129 

voice, he zvas told, and the direct object, story, is re- 
tained. It is called the retained object, and is in the 
objective case. 

Parse all words in the objective case in the 
following : 

1. He was taught the lesson thoroughly. 

2. You may sketch the picture for me. 

3. You were given the task yesterday. 

4. The child was fed the milk with a spoon. 

5. Jane has been taught the song. 

6. My mother taught me music and drawing. 

Rewrite the above sentences changing the voice of 
each verb. 

STUDY 133 
Verbs in Active Voice Only 

Write ten sentences in which the verbs cannot be 
changed into the passive voice; as, He walks rapidly. 

VOICE 

1. Active. 

2. Passive. 

STUDY 134 
The Transitive and the Intransitive Verb 

1. Jane wrote the letter. 2. The horse ran away. 

3. The crows found him and chased him out of sight. 

4. Next a red squirrel steals down and barks just 
over your head. 



130 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

From the above sentences list the verbs that can 
be used in both the active and the passive voice, and 
those that cannot. Compare these classes of verbs as 
to meaning and the result of the action expressed. 

A verb whose meaning admits of its use in either 
the active or the passive voice is a transitive verb. 

A verb whose meaning does not admit of its use in 
the passive voice is an intransitive verb. 

A verb whose subject or object complement receives the 
action is a transitive verb. 

In the following sentences change the voice of the 
verbs when possible, and classify them as transitive 
or intransitive: 

1. One hand was injured by the burn. 

2. These stories spread abroad and caused great tumult 
and alarm. 

3. We were taken into a clean, snug stable. 

4. He made a grand festival at his new birch house and 
invited all the ship carpenters in Boston. 

5. Here Grandfather gave his auditors details of this 
melancholy affair. 

6. Sir William Phipps quarreled with the captain of an 
English frigate. 

7. Ginger had been moved into the other stable. 

8. They buried him in one of the crowded cemeteries 
of London. 

9. Now imagine yourselves, my children, in Master Eze- 
kial Cherry's schoolroom. 



VERBS MAY BE TRANSITIVE OR INTRANSITIVE 131 

10. The little fellow tugged and toiled and got himself 
quite out of breath. 

11. The birch rod lost several of its twigs. 

12. The dinner was eaten by the campers. 

13. The boys sneezed. 

14. The young folks were well pleased with Grandma's 
proposal. 

15. Captain had been trained for an army horse. 

16. Aunt Amy went this morning. 

17. Meanwhile the rock sank farther and farther into the 
ground. 

18. Bob took the cup and gave the cockerel a spoonful of 
ginger. 

STUDY 135 
Construction of Nouns and Pronouns 

Give the construction of all the nouns and pronouns 
in the preceding sentences. 

STUDY 136 
Verbs may be Transitive or Intransitive 

Some verbs are transitive or intransitive accord- 
ing to their meaning in a particular connection. 

The dog ran away. 

They ran the poles into the ground. 

Distinguish between the transitive and the intransi- 
tive verbs in the following and give your reasons for 
your decisions: 



132 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

1. The cook tasted the milk. 

2. The milk tastes sour. 

3. The ice melted quickly. 

4. The sun melted the ice. 

5. Mary opened the trunk. 

6. The trunk opens easily. 

7. The teacher speaks German and French. 

8. Our teacher speaks distinctly. 

9. The men moved the house into the next lot. 
10. The swing moves easily. 

Some intransitive verbs are followed by nouns of 
kindred meaning. 

She lived a lonely life. 

He dreamed a dream. 

Such a verb cannot be parsed as transitive, because 
the noun is not a direct object but simply repeats the 
thought of the verb. 

A noun used in this way is called a cognate object and 
is in the objective case. 

STUDY 137 
The Copula 

1. Gold is yellow. 2. The men were sailors. 

What is the predicate of each of these sentences? 
How many words has each predicate? Could either 
w^ord of the predicate be omitted and the statement 
be preserved? Which word in each predicate seems 
to have most meaning? What seems to you to be the 
use of .the verb in each of these sentences? 



CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS 133 

In sentences like these, the verb he in its various forms, 
is, are, was, were, etc., has no meaning of its own, but merely 
connects the subject with the subjective complement, and 
is called a copula. 

Because the copula merely connects, it cannot take 
adverbial modifiers; but sometimes an adverb modi- 
fies the whole predicate ; e. g., The bird is^ not yellow. 
In this sentence not denies the whole predicate is 
yellozv. 

The copula has no voice as it expresses no action. 

Can a copula take an object or an objective com- 
plement ? Why ? 

There are a few verbs that not only partake of the 
nature of a copula but also have some meaning in 
themselves. They are called copulative verbs, and 
form a small class of intransitive verbs. 
He became ill. It turned cold. 

She appears happy. The door stands open. 

She seems a goddess. The man went mad. 

She grew more beautiful. My blood runs cold. 

STUDY 138 
Classification of Verbs 
Classify the verbs in the following sentences accord- 
ing to meaning, that is, as transitive, intransitive, or 
copula; and state which intransitive verbs are 
copulative : 

1. Now it is twelve o'clock. 

2. The master looks at his great silver watch, and then, 
with tiresome deliberation, puts the ferule into his desk. 



134 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

3. The little multitude await the word of dismissal with 
almost inexpressible impatience. 

4. Sir Abbott, we are yeomen and freemen of this forest. 

5. We are the protectors and the guardians of the poor. 

6. Robin took one-half of the money and gave it to his 
yeomen. 

7. Robin knew the seal was genuine. 

8. '*We are peaceable folks here," said Mort. 

9. 'This is a rare and beautiful sight," thought King 
Edward. 

10. When the dinner was ready Robin Hood and Little 
John waited upon the King. 

11. He looked searchingly into the King's face. 

12. They were happy, hearty boys. 

13. His face grew black. 

14. One by one they slipped away and went back to the 
forest. 

15. Martha has been in town for the day. 

STUDY 139 
Construction 

In the preceding sentences, give the construction 
of each word. Give the use of the phrase in town in 
sentence 15. 

VERBS ARE CLASSIFIED 

As to Use: 

1. Transitive. 

2. Intransitive. 



THE INDICATIVE AND THE IMPERATIVE MOOD 135 
STUDY 140 
Choice of Words 

Copy these sentences retaining only the correct 
form of the alternative words, and prepare to give 
reason for your choice: 

1. You may (sit, set) in this room. 

2. Will you (sit, set) the lamp on the table? 

3. (Sit, set) the chair here. 

4. He (set, sat) still a long time. 

5. He has (set, sat) in the hammock this afternoon. 

6. The hen (sits, sets) on the eggs. 

7. (Lay, lie) on the couch and rest. 

8. She has (laid, lain) there most of the afternoon. 

9. I saw him (lying, laying) on the grass. 

10. I (laid, lay) down for a while. 

11. She (lay, laid) the child on the bed. 

STUDY 141 
The Indicative and the Imperative Mood 

1. I have read your invitation. 2. Let me go. 
3. Send the carriage. 

State in your own way what seems to be the dif- 
ference in the way these three verbs assert something. 

That form or use of the verb that shows the manner of 
assertion is mood. 

The mood of simple declaration or question is the indica- 
tive mood. 



136 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

The clouds hang over us. 
Have you sold the horse? 

The mood of command or entreaty is the imperative 
mood. 

(You) Close the door. 

The subject of a verb in the imperative mood is gen- 
erally understood. It is always a pronoun in the sec- 
ond person. 

Tell whether these verbs are in the indicative or 
the imperative mood: 

1. At the first movement of the iron bar, the second son 
shpped from the tree down the bank and sprang to the plaif 
form. 

2. Give me room, boys. 

3. No, Rocket, I don't want your pole. 

4. Don't fling any of the missiles, boys. 

5. Keep it yourself, gentle knight. 

6. Now go to your master and tell him I shall be glad 
when he comes. 

7. Do you own the launch? 

8. No, but we own the boats. 

9. ''Take this," a soldier said, ''and bid me a brave good- 
bye." 

10. Once upon a time a young man made ready for a 
voyage. 

11. Early in the evening the wise old cedars had shaken 
their heads ominously and predicted strange things. 

12. Why do you leave me ? 

13. "Have no fear," said the angel. 



INDICATIVE AND IMPERATIVE MOOD 137 

14. Once upon a time the forest was in great commotion. 

15. His name was Norse; broad were his shoulders; his 
cheeks were ruddy; his hair was fair and long; his body 
betokened strength, and good nature shone from his blue eyes, 
and lurked about the corners of his mouth. 

16. ''Where are you going?" asked his neighbor, Jans, the 
forgemasler. 

17. Norse said, ''A spirit came to me in m^ dreams last 
night and said, 'Launch the boat and sail to-morrow/ *' 

18. Bring the oais. 

19. "Never mind him," shouted the wizard. 

20. ''Wake up, little friend," cried the sunbeams, "wake 
up, for it is springtime !" 

21. Row the boat quickly to the shore. 

22. '"Who are you?" cried Seth. 

23. A great wonder overcame Abner. 

24. "Get your places," called the boy. 



STUDY 142 
Classification of Verbs 

In the preceding sentences, tell whether each verb 
is transitive or intransitive, active or passive. 

STUDY 143 
Indicative and Imperative Mood 

Find in some book ten sentences with verbs in the 
indicative mood, and five with verbs in the imperative 
mood. 



138 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 144 

The Principal and the Auxiliary Verb 

A verb that is so used as to retain its full and proper 
meaning is a principal verb. 

/ have the pencil. Here have has its full and 
proper meaning, to hold, possess, or keep. 

When the full and proper meaning of a verb drops out 
of sight and this verb aids or helps another verb to express 
its meaning, it is an auxiliary verb. 

I have written the letter. Here have has lost its 
full meaning of possession and merely helps the verb 
write express its meaning by telling, in a general w^ay, 
the time of the letter-writing. As you w^ill observe 
here, the same verb is sometimes auxiliary and some- 
times principal. Compose or copy ten sentences in 
each of which there is an auxiliary verb. 



STUDY 145 
Tense 

1. I walk. 2. I walked. 3. I shall walk. 

What is the time of the action expressed by the 
verb in the first sentence? In the second? In the 
third? 

The form of the verb that distinguishes the time of the 
action is tense. 

The present tense denotes present time. 



TENSE. 139 

The past tense denotes past time. 
The future tense denotes future time. 

Tell the tense of each verb in the following: 

1. In a certain part of the sea, many leagues from here, 
there once lived a large family of oysters, noted for their 
beauty and size. 

2. "How good the oak tree is to the ivy!" said the other 
trees of the greenwood. 

3. ''How the oak tree loves her !" said the ash. 

4. Norse shook his head. ''The spirit will provide," said 
he. "I have no fear and I shall take no care, trusting in the 
spirit." 

5. Joe came and sat by me. 

6. "Are you afraid of them?" I asked. 

7. No, father, I shall go to my work. 

8. At this time the girls smiled, but all agreed that Grand- 
mother was right. 

9. Now I shall show you my beautiful new dog. 

10. "Take the glass, if that will help you," said the captain. 



STUDY 146 
Tense (Continued) 

1. I have finished the letter. 2. I had finished the 
letter before noon. 3. I shall have finished the letter 
before the mail goes out. 

Notice that in the first sentence the action is com- 
pleted, perfected at the present time. In the second, 



140 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

it was perfected at a certain time in the past. In the 
third, it will be perfected at a certain time in the 
future. 

Present perfect tense denotes action completed in pres- 
ent time. 

I have walked. 

I have finished the work. 

Past perfect tense denotes action completed at a certain 
time past. 

I had walked, 

I had finished the work before the boy called. 

Future perfect tense denotes action to be completed at 
a certain time in the future. 

I shall have walked. 

I shall have finished the work to-night. 

Tell the voice, mood, and tense of the verbs in these 
sentences : 

1. She devotes her time to the study of music. 

2. I have cut my finger. 

3. He called an hour ago. 

4. We shall overtake you. 

5. He had recited the poem before we came. 

6. We shall be punished for this. 

7. The seamstress will have finished my dress by evening. 

8. Catch the ball. 

9. Her presence lends its warmth and health 
To all who come before it. 



THE PERSON AND THE NUJMBER OF THE VERB 141 

10. I know when I shall start. 

11. "We shall see," replied Grandfather. 

12. A new war between PYance and England had broken 
out in 1702. 

13. Take hold of the sheet and push the helm over. 

14. This treasure-seeker had come over from England. 

15. They have soiled my new book. 

16. They will have crossed the bridge before the rain comes. 

17. He has fired both his shots. 

18. Run, Betsy ! run for your life, and send help ! 

19. This had been chosen by the children. 

20. Suddenly the smothered voice of Becky was heard by 
a party of visitors. 

What auxiliary verb marks the present perfect 
tense? The past perfect? The future perfect? 



TENSE 

1. Present. 

2. Past. 

3. Future. 

4. Present perfect. 

5. Past perfect. 

6. Future perfect. 



STUDY 147 
The Person and the Number of the Verb 

A verb must agree with its subject in person and 
number. 



142 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

Mary has studied her lesson. Has studied is the 
third person, singular number, to agree with the sub- 
ject Mary. I have zvritten a letter. Have written 
is first person, singular number, to agree with its 
subject /. 

In the study of nouns, nothing was said of person 
because nouns are always third person, except nouns 
of address. 

The pronoun you, formerly used in the plural sense 
only, now often singular in meaning, always takes 
the plural form of the verb. 

A verb that is limited in person and number by its sub- 
ject is a finite verb. Every sentence must have a finite 
verb in the predicate. 

Distinguish clearly the meaning of finite and 
infinite. 

In the preceding study, give the person and num- 
ber of each finite verb. 

STUDY 148 
Number of Verbs 
Account for the number of each verb: 

1. Nearly one-half of the inhabitants were assembled. 

2. Two-thirds of this is mine by rights. 

3. The jury are all old men. 

4. The crowd throng the streets. 

5. The jury is in its room. 

6. With Thee a thousand years is as one day. 



CONJUGATION 143 

7. His father and his brother were Hving. 

8. Neither the one nor the other appears to have under- 



stood. 
9. 
10. The tramp of horses was heard. 



9. The king or his soldiers have done the deed. 



STUDY 149 
The Conjugation of the Verb 

The tabulation of the forms of a verb in the various 
voices, moods, tenses, persons, and numbers is con- 
jugation. These variations in form are the inflec- 
tions of a verb. 

Turn to Study 178 and learn the conjugation of 
the verb be in the indicative and the imperative moods. 

STUDY 150 
Conjugation 

In Studies 179, 180, and 181, learn the conjuga- 
tion of the verb see in the indicative and the impera- 
tive moods, active and passive voices. Be able to 
give in both voices the conjugation of such other 
verbs as your teacher may direct. 

STUDY 151 
Conjugation 

Learn the synopsis of see, indicative mood. Be 
able to write this perfectly without reference to the 
book. See Studies 182, 183. Prepare to write synop- 
ses of other verbs selected by your teacher. 



144 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 152 
Parsing Verbs 

ORDER OF PARSING. 

*1. Classification as to Form. 

*2. Principal Parts. 

3. Classification as to Use. 

4. Voice. 

5. Mood. 

6. Tense. 

7. Person. 

8. Number. 

FORM FOR PARSING. 

We have written a letter, {^Have written is a 
strong verb. Principal parts: present, write; past, 
wrote; past participle, written.) It is transitive, in 
the active voice, indicative mood, present perfect 
tense. It is first person, plural number, to agree with 
its subject, we. 

FORM FOR TABULATION 

We have written a letter. 



Verb 


Class as 
to form 


Prin. 
parts 


Class as 
to use 


Voice 


Mood 


Tense 


Person 


Number 


Have 
written 


strong 


pres., write 
past, wrote 
past part., 
written 


transitive 


active 


indicative 


pres. 
perf. 


first 


plural 
to agree 
with its 
subj. we 



Parse any ten verbs in Study 138 or 141, 



*Omit until further study. 



THE INFINITIVE MOOD 145 

STUDY 153 
Peculiar Uses of "It" 

Study the use of it in the following sentences : 

It was zuell that we zvent. It happened that the 
guests all came. It came about in this way that the 
hoy was found. Notice that in these sentences it means 
nothing, but takes the place of the subject which 
appears later in the sentence, and is therefore called 
a representative subject or an expletive. 

It will rain to-morrow. Did it thunder yesterday? 
In these sentences it is the real subject, but refers to 
no definite thing. Verbs used with such a subject do 
not admit of variations in person and number, and 
hence are called impersonal verbs, and the subject is 
called an impersonal subject. 

Similarly in: They footed it to the next town and 
had a good time of it, it is an impersonal object. 

Compose or find six sentences involving these three 
uses of it. 

STUDY 154 

The Infinitive Mood 

What is the meaning of finite? infinite? Why is 
a finite verb so called? (See Study 147.) Sometimes 
the verb names an action or state without asserting 
it, and without reference to person or number. For 
example, hear and rozv in the following: / like to 
hear good music. To row zvas a pleasure to her. 



146 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

The mood that names action or state in a general way 
without limitations of person and number is the infinitive 
mood. 

Note. — The infinitive often has to before it. 

To is not used with the infinitive after the verbs see, 
hear, feel, let, make, hid, find, dare, may, can, must, 
and some others. He dared not attempt the journey. 
In this sentence, attempt is an infinitive because it 
expresses the action in a general way and has not a 
subject that limits it in person or number; as in, He 
attempts, or They attempt. 

Learn the forms of the infinitive in the active and 
the passive voice, Studies 179, 180. 

Select each infinitive in the following sentences: 

1. Then at once it began to quiver. 

2. To say the truth, our friend Charlie was very much out 
of humor v^^ith the storm. 

3. You had all gone to rest, and had left old Grandfather 
to meditate alone in his great armchair. 

4. In the energy of its utterance, the old armchair seemed 
to stamp its foot. 

5. ''Neighbor Franklin," his father's friends sometimes 
said, "you ought to send this boy, Benjamin, to college and 
make a minister out of him." 

6. Archie, with shouts of merriment, helped Christie dis- 
engage the poor bird. 

7. I go to take up my abode in the country, to plant my- 
self upon unfamiliar ground. 



THE USES OF THE INFINITIVE 147 

8. I resolved to part with her and try another 

9. Gods! can a Roman senate long debate 
Which of the two to choose, slavery or death? 

ADDISON. 

10. O villainy ! Ho ! let the door be lock'd. — Shakespeare. 



STUDY 155 
The Uses of the Infinitive 

1. As a Noun. 

2. As an Adjective. 

3. As an Adverb. 

4. As an Independent Element. 

1. As a Noun: 

a. Subject. 
To skate is fun. 

b. Subjective Complement. 

To see is to believe. 

c. Object of Verb. 

He loves to arjue. 

d. With the Prepositions, hut, about, and 
except. 

None knew thee but to love thee. 
He was about to depart. 

e. Appositive. 

This kind of exercise, to climb hills, is excellent. 

Tell the uses of the infinitives in these sentences: 



148 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

1. The Prince told her what he intended to do. 

2. To sail away will be very pleasant. 

3. They expected to meet us last evening. 

4. He wishes to obtain more information. 

5. To pass them unobserved is impossible. 

6. It was my intention to hide it in the bushes. 

7. To watch all the marvelous life at the edge of the ocean 
was enchanting, and she never wearied of it. 

8. But soon it began to dance anew, 

9. I shall expect to hear some news of him. 

10. I think it is foolish to remain here. 

11. Our aim is always to speak the truth. 

12. She was about to go. 

13. *'0h, I like to wear a sword," said Charley. 

14. To bear our fate is to conquer it. 

15. No way remains but to go. 

16. The children were so much excited that Grandfather 
found it necessary to bring his accounts to a close. 

17. The best thing will be to represent the case truthfully. 

18. None knew thee but to love thee ; 
None named thee but to praise. 

19. He chose not to interfere. 

20. It delighted the boys to hear him. 

STUDY 156 
The Uses of the Infinitive — (Continued) 

2. As an Adjective: 

a. Modifying a Noun. 

Water to drink is scarce. 



THE OBJECTIVE SUBJECT 149 

3. As an Adverb: 

a. Modifying a Verb. 
He came to see us. 

b. Modifying an Adjective. 
He was anxious to start. 

c. Modifying an Adverb. 
I love you too much to let you go. 

4. As an Independent Element: 

To he definite, they will be here at noon. 

Tell the use of each infinitive in these sentences, 
and parse such of them as your teacher may direct: 

1. I have a great desire to know the exact appearance of 
the North Pole. 

2. He is able to announce certain facts. 

3. A young girl can be patient enough to learn to sew. 

4. All Christie's good bread went to feed the chickens. 

5. To make time agreeable, he entertained them with 
stories. 

6. There was nothing in her appearance to frighten him. 

7. I shall be happy to accept the offer. 

8. Have you any advice to give us? 

9. I shall be glad to do anything I can to help you. 
10. To tell the truth, I am wrong. 

STUDY 157 

The Objective Subject 

In the sentence, TJiey saw her depart, depart is an 
infinitive. This infinitive does not modify her in an 



150 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

adjective sense. Her tells who did the action of 
departing, yet it does not limit the verb depart in 
person and number as the subject does in, She departs. 
In the sentence, They saw her depart, her is the 
objective subject of the infinitive and is in the objective 
case. See outline following Study 68. 

The infinitive with its objective subject may be the 
object of a verb; as, We wanted him to go; him is the 
objective subject of the infinitive, and the whole 
expression, him to go, is the object of wanted, 

A noun or a pronoun used as a subjective complement 
after an infinitive with its objective subject is in the ob- 
jective case. 

We know them to be him and her. 

Tell the use of each infinitive, and parse each 
objective subject: 

1. I wish some one to take care of my horse. 

2. He has sent us to obtain information. 

3. She heard the chorus sing the Christmas anthem. 

4. Delay will cause you to miss the object of your search. 

5. His mother saw him fall from the fence. 

6. In May, when sea-winds pierced our solitudes, 
I found the fresh Rhodora in the woods, 
Spreading its leafless blooms in a damp nook, 
To please the desert and the sluggish brook. 

The purple petals, fallen in the pool, 
Made the black water with their beauty gay. 
Here might the redbird come his plumes to cool, 
And court the flower that cheapens his array. 

EMERSON. 



USES OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES 151 

7. They told him to surrender or die. 

8. His father wishes him to become a lawyer. 

9. To speak more accurately, the lace is just two yards 
and four inches long. 

10. Let him first be a man. 

11. To proceed, the period during which the governors sat 
in our chair was not very full of striking incidents. 

STUDY 158 

Uses of Phrases and Clauses 

An infinitive with all its complements and modifiers is 
called an infinitive phrase. 

Tell the use of each phrase and each clause in all 
the exercises on infinitives. Be prepared to give the 
construction of such words as your teacher directs. 

USES OF THE INFINITIVE. 

1. Noun: 

a. Subject. 

b. Subjective Complement. 

c. Object of Verb. 

d. With the Prepositions, hut, about, etc. 

e. Appositive. 

2. Adjective: 

a. Modifying a Noun or a Pronoun. 

3. Adverb: 

a. Modifying a Verb. 

b. Modifying an Adverb. 

c. Modifying an Adjective. 

4. Independent Element. 



152 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 159 
Mood 

What is the indicative mood? 

Write five sentences containing verbs in the indi- 
cative mood. 

What is the imperative mood? 

Write five sentences containing verbs in the impera- 
tive mood. 

What is the infinitive mood? 

Write five sentences containing verbs in the 
infinitive mood. 

STUDY 160 
The Subjunctive Mood 

1. God be with you. 2. God is with you. 3. If 
the master were here, I should take my lesson. 4. 
The master was here, and I took my lesson. 5. If 
he were here, you would not speak thus. 

Which of these verbs assert something as a fact? 
Which assert something as merely thought of? 

The mood that asserts something as merely thought of 
as possible and not considered as a fact is the subjunctive 
mood. 

The subjunctive mood is most commonly used to 
express : 

1. A zvish or exhortation. 
Long live the King. 



CONJUGATION 153 

2. Supposition. 

If he he your friend, he will tell you the truth. 

3. Uncertainty. 

I will attempt the task whatever it may he. 

4. Purpose. 

I worked hard that I might gain the prize. 

The conjunctions if, that, lest, though, unless, and 
the like, often precede the verb in the subjunctive 
mood, but the conjunction is not necessarily a sign of 
the mood. 

The student must bear in mind the distinction 
between the indicative and the subjunctive mood: the 
indicative states as a fact; the subjunctive, as merely 
thought of or supposed. The distinction is not in the 
meaning of the verb but in the manner of assertion. 

Indicative: He could play the violin before he 
came. 

Subjunctive: If I could play the violin, I would 
do it. 

STUDY 161 
Conjugation 

Learn the conjugation and synopsis of he and see, 
in the active and the passive voices, in the subjunc- 
tive mood. See Studies 178 to 183. 



154 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 162 
Mood 

Tell the mood of each verb in these sentences : 

1. If they were only cared for, I could go in peace. 

2. Heaven protect us ! 

3. I know I should like it. 

4. It would have been better for him if he had known one 
thing well. 

5. Judge not that ye be not judged. 

6. Teach me to feel another's woe, 

To hide the faults I see; 
That mercy I to others show. 
That mercy show to me. — pope. 

7. The boy's play looked as if it might end in sad earnest. 

8. He will learn after a while if he keeps on trying. 

9. I will not send them away fasting lest they faint in 
the way. 

10. Had King George been there, he could have done noth- 
ing for himself. 

11. The mob triumphed in their downfall and destruction, 
as if these pictures of Hutchinson's forefathers had committed 
the same offenses as their descendants. 

12. Give us this day our daily bread. 

13. 'T should think," said Laurence, ''that the people would 
have petitioned the King." 

14. If mother were home, I should ask permission to go. 

15. If thy right eye offend thee, pluck it out. 

16. Hallowed be thy name! 



ANALYSIS 155 

17. If it had not been for the great heart and courage of 
Washington, they would have given up in bitter despair. 

18. One would think he had never seen a gun before. 

19. Pete stopped as if he himself had received a shot. 

20. Be careful where you walk, for fear you fall. 



STUDY 163 
Analysis 

Week in, week out, from morn till night, 
You can hear his bellows blow ; 

You can hear him swing his heavy sledge, 
With measured beat and slow, 

Like a sexton ringing the village bell, 
When the evening sun is low. 

And children coming home from school 

Look in at the open door; 
They love to see the flaming forge, 

And hear the bellows roar. 
And catch the burning sparks that fly 

Like chaff from the threshing-floor. 

He goes on Sunday to the church, 

And sits among his boys ; 
He hears the parson pray and preach. 

He hears his daughter's voice 
Singing in the village choir, 

And it makes his heart rejoice. 



156 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

It sounds to him like her mother's voice, 

Singing in Paradise! 
He needs must think of her once more, 

How in the grave she lies ; 
And with his hard, rough hand he wipes 

A tear out of his eyes. 

LONGFELLOW. 

Give the use of each phrase and each clause, and be 
able to parse or give the construction of any word in 
the poem except coming, ringing, singing, can hear, 
and must think, 

MOOD. 

1. Indicative. 

2. Imperative. 

3. Infinitive. 

4. Subjunctive. 

STUDY 164 
Principal and Auxiliary Verbs 

What is a principal verb? What is an auxiliary 
verb? (Study 144). Find or write ten illustrations 
of principal verbs and four illustrations of auxiliary 
verbs. 

Some verbs are principal or auxiliary according to 
their meaning. The following is a summary of their 
distinctive meanings : 

Be 

Principal, to exist. 
God is. 

Copula, The boy is lazy. 



PRINCIPAL AND AUXILIARY VERBS 157 

Auxiliary, helps to express the passive and progressive 
forms. 



He is beaten. 
He is singing. 



Have, past Had 



Principal, to possess or hold. 

I have a pencil. » 

He had a book. 

Auxiliary, tense sign. 

I have sharpened a pencil. 
He had gone before I called. 

Will, past Would 

Principal, to desire, to determine. 
What wilt thou? • 

He would go. 

Will and would are sometimes used as principal verbs to 
denote habitual action. 

He zvould often read until it was too dark to see. 

Auxiliary, will, tense sign, second and third persons, 
future indicative. 

Charles zuill read the book. 

Would is also an auxiliary of the subjunctive mood. 

If he would give me the book, I could study. 

Shall, past Should 

Principal, will in the first person, and shall in the second 
and third persons, signify determination on the part of the 
speaker ; as, I zvill have the candy. You shall do as I tell you. 

Should as a principal verb signifies obligation or duty; as. 
You should study. 



158 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

Auxiliary, shall, tense sign, first person, future indicative. 
I shall study earnestly. 

Would and should take the place of zvill and shall in indi- 
rect discourse ; as, 

He said, "It will rain"=He said it would rain. 
He said, ''I shall go"=He said he should go. . 
I thought I shoidd cry. 

Should, auxiliary of subjunctive mood. 

He reminded me lest I should forget. 

May, past Might 
Principal, to have permission. 
You may go for a walk. 
To express possibility. 
He may pass the examination. 

Auxiliary, auxiliary of subjunctive mood. 
I work that I ma^y gain the prize. 

Can, past Could 

Principal, to be able. 
I can sing. 

Ought 

Principal, to be under obligation. 
He ought to work. 

Must 

Principal, to be obliged. 
They must hurry. 

Do, past Did 

Principal, to make, perform. 
They do their work well. 



PRINCIPAL AND AUXILIARY VERBS 159 

Auxiliary, to make up the emphatic, interrogative, and 
negative forms of the verb. 

Jamie did eat the apple. 
Do you expect her? 
I do not believe you. 

Might, could, would, and should do not conform strictly 
to any rule of tense. 

STUDY 165 
Principal and Auxiliary Verbs 

In the following sentences, tell whether each itali- 
cized word is an auxiliary or a principal verb, and give 
its meaning as principal or its use as auxiliary : 

1. There are rich people in the world. 

2. The children have gone. 

3. I will go to the party. 

4. I shall be there by noon. 

5. The birds do not all leave in the autumn. 

6. It ma{y rain, and then we can not have our picnic. 

7. Jane said she zuould come. 

8. James is the culprit. 

9. The cattle were grazing in the field. 

10. The board may elect its own president. 

11. Henry can skate. 

12. Children ought to obey. 

13. He must do his work. 

14. You will have a warm day for your journey. 

15. Thou shalt not steal. 

16. Alary has a cold. 



160 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

17. She would start in spite of the rain. 

18. We did our duty. 

19. I will be obeyed. 

' 20. He was beaten with many stripes. 

21. He does not know you. 

22. You may have the book. 

23. The birds will be back soon. 

24. Z)c you enjoy school? 

25. James ^-/m// not leave the room. 

26. He would come the same hour day after day.' 

27. Have you ever crossed the ocean? 

28. I will fight it out on this Hne if it takes all summer. 

29. I do wish you were here. 

30. He will fish hours at a time. 

STUDY 166 
Choice of Words 

Select the proper word of each of these pairs, and 
give a reason for your choice: 

1. (Shall, will) you be glad to have a vacation?* 

2. It has been decided that vacation (shall, will) begin 
to-morrow and continue a week. 

3. I shall (learn, teach) the dog the trick. 

4. If he (would, should) do that we (would, should) 
forgive him. 

5. (Can, may) I leave the room? 

6. They (run, ran) the race yesterday. 

*In asking questions the use of shall or zvil! depends upon which 
word will be correct in the expected answer. 



PARSING VERBS 161 

7. I (shall, will) go; nobody (shall, will) prevent me. 

8. Did he (learn, teach) you the lesson? 

9. (May, can) I pass you the bread? 

10. He (came, come) back this morning. 

11. (Can, may) I do the errand for you? 

STUDY 167 
Parsing Verbs 

In some sentences, when it seems difficult to deter- 
mine the use of the infinitive, it is helpful to substitute 
the meaning of the principal verb. For example: in, 
Yott may go to the picnic, the meaning is, You are 
permitted to go to the picnic, and to go has an 
adverbial relation to are permitted. 

An auxiliary verb is never parsed alone. 
Parse the verbs in the following sentences : 

1. You may pass the drawing material. ' 

2. Where did you say he lives? 

3. Mary must close the door. 

4. The boys should study harder. 

5. Martha ought to go to the market. 

6. Let the rebel parson lead the march. 

7. We have heard her sing before. 

8. I could read more easily before the others came. 

9. There is one thing that I must not forget. 

10. James may hand me my books. 

11. They came to see the new picture. 

12. We did study our lessons. 



162 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

13. I will have the chair I want. 

14. John wishes to help you find the letter. 

15. John could do the work this morning. 

16. I shall expect you to-morrow. 

17. I can solve the puzzle. 

18. How dare they question our demands? 

STUDY 168 
The Participle 

1. The sailors, clinging to planks, were saved. 

2. Tired by the long walk, the child slept soundly. 

3. The ship, driven before the wind, ran upon the 
rocks. 

Define verb ; adjective. Find the verb in each predi- 
cate of the above sentences. Find in each sentence 
another word that seems to have the nature of a verb. 
What words describe sailors, child, and ship? Then 
the words clinging, tired, and driven seem to do the 
work of what two parts of speech? 

A word doing the work of both a verb and an adjective 
is a participle. 

A participle takes the same complements and modifiers 
as any other form of the verb, but has the adjective nature 
as well, for it always modifies a noim or pronoun. 

1. Quickly seeing the difficulty, he ran for help. 
(Part, with adv. mod.) 

2. Being ill, Mary lay on the couch. (Part, with 
subjective comp.) 



THE PARTICIPLE 163 

In the first sentence seeing modifies he; in the sec- 
ond, being modifies Mary. 

A participle may be either in the active or the 
passive voice. 

Active: We watched the bird bozving and 
fluttering. 

Passive: Truth crushed to earth shall rise again. 

A participle may have three tenses: present, past 
or perfect, and present perfect. 

A participle ending in ing and denoting present time is 
a present participle. 

Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, onward through life 
he goes. 

The man, being delayed, missed the train, 

A past or perfect participle refers to past time and has a 
variety of endings : d, t, n, and others. 

It is called the past or perfect participle because it 
belongs to past time, and expresses the condition as 
the result of the action of the verb. 

My mind is troubled, like a fountain stirred. 

(Note. — It is the past participle or the infinitive that is used with 
the auxiliary to form a compound tense. Mary has gone. Fannie will 
fall.) 

A participle expressing an action completed in present 
time is a present perfect participle. 

It always contains the auxiliary having. 

Having packed his trunk, he was ready to depart. 



164 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

His trunk having been packed, it was strapped and 
locked. 

Learn the participles of the verb he and see. Studies 
178, 179, 180, and 181. 

STUDY 169 
Participles 

Many participles, from much use, have become 
adjectives. It was the mischievous, romping wind, 
once more; romping is an adjective. It was the mis- 
chievous zvind, romping once more; romping is a 
participle. 

Select the participles in these sentences from Swiss 
Family Robinson. Give the tense, voice, and use of 
each: 

1. She returned, smiling. 

2. "Be assured," said I, bidding her good-night, "God 
listens to the simplest prayer of the child." 

3. It contained sailor's clothes, drenched with sea water. 

4. Having awakened Ernest at dawn, we got ready. 

5. Talking thus, we arrived at the shore. 

6. We were startled by the cock, crowing at dawn. 

7. She saw the little ape running to the roots of the fig 
tree, under which he disappeared. 

8. Suspecting some mischief, she followed him. 

9. Searching under the neighboring roots, Ernest found 
a store of eggs. 

10. Absorbed in this work, we did not notice that the cow 
and the ass, attracted by the luxuriant verdure on the other 
side of the stream, had wandered across the bridge. 



THE NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE 165 

11. My wife, hearing us, began to exclaim against our ex- 
pedition. 

12. Jack, having been reassured, began to work again. 

STUDY 170 
The Nominative Absolute 

A participle may be used with a noun ias an inde- 
pendent element. The noun is then in the nominative 
case. "^The storm having passed, we continued our 
journey. Sometimes the participle is not expressed 
but understood; as, He lay down, his heart (being) 
heavy zvith sorrow. 

A noun or a pronoun with a participle used with no 
apparent relation to any word in the sentence is a nomina- 
tive absolute. 

*/ being willing, they went away together. 

Give the tense, voice, and use of each participle: 

*1. The bridge having been washed away, we forded the 
stream. 

2. Never having heard it, I had frequently asked Indians 
what it was like. 

3. Once aroused in this way, he heeds no danger. 

*4. The canoe having been quietly pushed on shore, the 
enemy disappeared among the brush. 
5. He seemed bewildered. 
*6. The plans being matured, the army broke camp. 

*It should be noted that these sentences are loose and awkward, 
that they are not considered good modern English. How much better 
to say: When the storm had passed we continued our journey. Because 
the bridge had been swept away, we forded the stream. 



166 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

A participle with all its complements and modifiers is 
called a participial phrase. 

ORDER OF PARSING PARTICIPLES 



1. 


Class as to Form. 


2. 


Principal Parts. 


3. 


Class as to Use. 


4. 


Voice. 


5. 


Tense. 


6. 


Construction. 




STUDY 171 



Participles and Nouns 

In these sentences, also from Swiss Family Robin- 
son, parse each participle and any noun used inde- 
pendently : 

1. Leaving my young philosopher to teach his brother, 
I became absorbed in the construction of the hurdle. 

2. Our wicks having been prepared, we melted a quantity 
of wax in our kettle. 

3. The dogs came Dounding to meet us, but soon began 
anew to growl, springing toward the forest. 

4. Fritz coming up, we called Ernest and Jack. 

5. Taking a good supply of provisions, we set sail. 

6. Having crept noiselessly to the foot of the hill, I fired. 

7. I saw something moving among the leaves of the tree. 

8. Your own courage, aided by brave children like ours, 
will accomplish all. 

*Omit until further study. 



INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 167 

9. The shower having passed over, we gathered many 
cocoanuts. 

10. Fritz, distributing his sugar canes and replacing his 
little charge on Turk's back, presented Ernest with his gun. 

11. The rainy season being near, it became necessary to 
lay in a large supply of provisions. 



STUDY 172 
Construction 

Be able to give the construction of any word in the 
last two studies. 

STUDY 173 
Independent Elements 

1. Noun in Direct Address. 

2. Noun Independent by Exclamation. 

3. Interjection. 

4. Expletive. 

5. Noun Used Absolutely with Participle. 

6. Infinitive Phrase. 

7. Participial Phrase. 

8. Prepositional Phrase. 

Give the construction of all words used in the inde- 
pendent elements: 

1. James, where is your brother? 

2. There will be no trouble about it. 
3- Hurrah! winter has come! 



168 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

4. Fire ! Boys, come here. 

5. To be honest, I do not know the secret. 

6. John having returned, the party set out. 

7. Speaking generally, this is the case. 

8. The cold weather having come, the birds are going 
south. 

9. To speak plainly, there is no hope of her recovery. 

10. In regard to finances, we are sure there will be no 
deficit. 

11. Ho! strike away the bars and blocks. 

STUDY 174 
The Gerund 

1. Riding swiftly is dangerous. 2. He likes play- 
ing football. 

In the first sentence what is the subject? By what 
part of speech is this subject modified? This word 
riding seems to do the work of what two parts of 
speech ? What is the construction of football f What 
word in the second sentence seems to do the work of 
two parts of speech? 

A verbal noun ending in ing and capable of taking a com- 
plement, or of being modified by an adverb, is a gerund. It 
is sometimes called the infinitive in "ing." 

In modern English the gerund is seldom preceded 
by the, a, or an, or followed by of; e. g., Riding swiftly 
is dangerous. Hemming requires care. 

A gerund may be the subject; as, Walking briskly 
is good exercise; subjective complement; as, Striving 



THE GERUND 169 

to make men contented is undertaking an impossibil- 
ity; the object of a verb; as, / could not help laughing 
loudly; used with a preposition; as, Language is the 
art of expressing thought. The gerund takes the 
same complements and same modifiers as a predicate 
verb, but has also the construction of a noun. 

A gerund with all its complements and modifiers is called 
a gerundial phrase. 

Learn the gerunds of the verb be and see, Studies 
178, 179, and 180. 

The order of parsing gerunds is the same as that 
of participles. 

It should be made clear, and borne in mind, that 
the gerund is a verb, doing also the work of a noun; 
but as a verb it can take complements and adverbial 
modifiers. Some nouns name actions, but being only 
nouns they cannot take complements and their modi- 
fiers are always adjective elements. When there are 
no modifiers it is difiiicult to distinguish the gerund 
from the simple noun. One test is to supply a suit- 
able modifier, and then decide whether that modifier 
does the work of an adjective or an adverb. If the 
word can take an adverbial modifier, it must have the 
verb notion, and is therefore a gerund. 

In these sentences, parse each gerund, each par- 
ticiple, and each noun naming action: 

1. He could not be mistaken in supposing that it moved 
its lips. 



170 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

2. He thanked this respectable old chair for beginning the 
conversation, and begged to know whether it had anything 
particular to communicate. 

3. Shall I ever again be able to hear the song of the oriole 
without being pierced through and through? 

4. We regretted losing the place. 

5. Anon, seeming to remember that these antics were un- 
worthy of such a dignified and venerable chair, it suddenly 
stood still. 

6. The child did not do his grandsire's bidding. 

7. The cat frisked before her, turning to see if she were 
following. 

8. The moving of the branches cast shadows across the 
path. 

9. After securing our safety by lighting a fire, we sank 
to sleep on our beds of moss. 

10. The process which I shall employ in making our shoes 
resembles the one I have described. 

11. Laughing at the funny expression, I turned to my 
sketch and began working in earnest. 

12. The pine tree sang of his promised coming. 

13. Fido was delighted beyond all telling. 

14. Late in the autumn, a party of merry birds, flying 
joyously through the blue heavens on their way south, lighted 
to rest on the rock. 

15. A two days' scouring of the surrounding country re- 
vealed absolutely no trace of the fugitives. 

16. The constant running rapidly back and forth wearied 
me. 



VERBAL FORMS 171 

PHRASES 

1. As to Form: 

a. Prepositional. 

b. Infinitive. 

c. Participial. 

d. Gerundial. 

2. As to Use: 

a. Adjective. 

b. Adverb. 

c. Substantive. 

d. Independent Element. 

VERBAL FORMS 

/. Participles: 

A. Modifications. 

1. Voice: 

a. Active. 

b. Passive. 

2. Tense: 

a. Present. 

b. Past or Perfect. 

c. Present Perfect. 

B. Uses: 

1. Same as Adjective. 

2. With Noun as Nominative Absolute. 

II. Gerunds: 

A. Modifications. 
1. Voice: 



172 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

a. Active. 

b. Passive. 

2. Tense: 

a. Present. 

b. Present Perfect. 

B. Uses: 

1. Subject. 

2. Subjective Complement. 

3. Object of Verb. 

4. With Preposition. 



STUDY 175 
Conjugation 

Learn the conjugation of the progressive forms of 
the verb see, Study 181. Note the difference in mean- 
ing and form between these and the passive. 

STUDY 176 
The Classification of Verbs as to Form 

You have learned that verbs are classified accord- 
ing to use as transitive and intransitive. They are 
classified according to form as strong verbs and zveak 
verbs. These verbs are distinguished from each other 
by their manner of forming their past tenses. 

A verb that forms its past tense by a change in vowel and 
without the addition of ed, d, or t, is a strong verb. 



THE CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS AS TO FORM 173 





Principal Parts 


' 


Present 


Past 


Perf. Part, 


sing 
drive 


sang 
drove 


sung 
driven 



The perfect participle of a strong verb is formed 
sometimes by a change of vowel, sometimes by adding 
n, or en, sometimes by both mean5. 

The following list gives the principal parts of strong 
verbs for reference. Italicized words are weak alter- 
native forms: 



Present 

abide 

arise 

awake 

bear 

bear 

beat 

begin 

behold 

bid 

bind 

bite 

blow 

break 

choose 

cleave 

cling 

come 

dig 

do 



Past 




Perf. Part. 


abode 




abode 


arose 




arisen 


awoke, 


awaked 


awoke, awaked 


bore 




borne 


bore 




born 


beat 




beaten 


began 




begun 


beheld 




beheld 


bade, bid 


bid, bidden 


bound 




bound 


bit 




bit, bitten 


blew 




blown 


broke 




broken 


chose 




chosen 


clove, 


cleft 


cloven, cleft 


clung 




clung 


came 




come 


dug 




dug 


did 




done 



174 



STUDIES IN ENGLISH 



Present 


Past 


Perf.. Part. 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


drive 


drove 


driven 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


fling 


• flung 


flung 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get 


got 


got, gotten 


give 


gave 


given 


grind 


ground 


ground 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hang 


hung 


hung 


heave 


hove, heaved 


hove, heaved 


hold 


held 


held 


know 


knew 


known 


lie 


lay 


lain 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


ring 


rang 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


run 


ran 


run 


see 


saw 


seen 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


shear 


sheared 


shorn, sheared 


shine 


shone 


shone 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


shrink 


shrank 


shrunk 



I 



THE CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS AS TO FORM 175 



Present 

shrive 
sing 
sink 
sit 
slay- 
sling 
slink 
smite 
speak 
spin 
spring 
stand 
stave 
steal 
stick 
sting 
stink 
stride 
strike 
string 
strive 
swear 
swim 
swing 
take 
tear 
thrive 
throw 
tread 
wear 
wake 
weave 



Past 




Perf. Part. 


shrove 


shrived 


shriven, shrived 


sang 




sung 


sank 




sunk 


sat 




sat 


slew 




slain 


slung 




slung 


slunk 




slunk 


smote 




srhitten 


spoke 




spoken 


span, spun 


spun 


sprang 




sprung 


stood 




stood 


stove, 


staved 


stove, staved 


stole 




stolen 


stuck 




stuck 


stung 




stung 


stank. 


stunk 


stunk 


strode 




stridden 


struck 




struck, stricken 


strung 




strung 


strove 




striven 


swore 




sworn 


swam 




swum 


swung 




swung 


took 




taken 


tore 




torn 


throve, 


thrived 


thriven, thrived 


threw 




thrown 


trod 




trodden, trod 


wore 




worn 


woke, 


waked 


woke, waked 


wove 




woven 



176 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

Present Past Perf. Part. 

win won won 

wind wound wound 

wring wrung wrung 

write wrote written 

A verb that forms its past tense by adding ed, d, or t to 
the present is a weak verb. 

Present Past Perf. Part. 

walk walked walked 

dwell dzvelt dwelt 

The perfect participle of a weak verb is of the same 
form as the past tense. 

There are two classes of weak verbs. 

1. Regular weak; as, 

Present 
mend 
love 
wish 



Past 


Perf. Part. 


mended 


mended 


loved 


loved 


wished 


wished 


as, 




crept 


crept 


laid 


laid 



2. Irregular weak; as, 

creep 
lay 

The following list gives the principal parts of the 
irregular verbs for reference: 

The forms of the perfect participles inclosed in 
parentheses are those less frequently used. 

Verbs marked with * have also the regular weak 
forms. 



THE CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS AS TO FORM 177 



Present 


Past 


Perf. Part, 


*bend 


bent 


bent 


*bereave 


bereft 


bereft 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


*bet 


bet 


bet 


betide 


betid 


betid 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


*blend 


blent 


blent 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bring 


brought 


brought 


*build 


built 


built 


*burn 


burnt 


burnt 


*burst 


burst 


burst 


buy 


bought 


bought 


cast 


cast 


cast 


catch 


caught 


caught 


chide 


chid 


chid (chidden) 


cost 


cost 


cost 


creep 


crept 


crept 


cut 


cut 


cut 


*dare 


durst 


dared 


deal 


dealt 


dealt 


*dream 


dreamt 


dreamt 


dwell 


dwelt 


dwelt 


feed 


fed 


fed 


feel 


felt 


felt 


flee 


fled 


fled 


*gird 


girt 


girt 


go 


went 


gone 


have 


had 


had 


hear 


heard 


heard 


hide 


hid 


hid (hidden) 


hit 


hit 


hit 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 



178 



STUDIES IN ENGLISH 



Present 

keep 
"^kneel 
^knit 

lay 

lead 
"^lean 
*leap 

leave 

lend 

let 
flight 

lose 

make 

mean 

meet 

pay 

put 

quit 

read 

rend 

rid 

say 

seek 

sell 

send 

set 

shed 

shoe 

shred 

shut 

sleep 

slide 

slit 



Past 



Perf. Part. 



kept 


kept 


knelt 


knelt 


knit 


knit 


laid 


laid 


led 


led 


leant 


leant 


leapt 


leapt 


left 


left 


lent 


lent 


let 


let 


lit 


lit 


lost 


lost 


made 


made 


meant 


meant 


met 


met 


paid 


paid 


put 


put 


quit 


quit 


read 


read 


rent 


rent 


rid 


. rid 


said 


said 


sought 


sought 


sold 


sold 


sent 


sent 


set 


set 


shed 


shed 


shod 


shod 


shred 


shred 


shut 


shut 


slept 


slept 


slid 


slid (slidden) 


slit 


slit 



THE CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS AS TO FORM 179 



Present 






Past 






Perf. Part. 


speed 






sped 






sped 


*spell 






spelt 






spelt 


spend 






spent 






spent 


*spill 






spilt 






spilt 


spit 






spit 






spit 


split 






split 






split 


spread 






spread 






spread 


*stay 






staid 






staid 


sweat 






sweat 






sweat 


sweep 






swept 






swept 


teach 






taught 






taught 


tell 






told 






told 


think 






thought 






thought 


thrust 






thrust 






thrust 


weep 






wept 






wept 


*wend 






went 






wended 


*wed 






. wed 






wed 


*wet 






wet 






wet 


*whet 






whet 






whet 


*work 






wrought 






wrought 


The 


following 


are called 


defective 


verbs because 


they have 


not all 


the mood and 


tense forms: shall, 



will, may, can, must, ought. 



VERBS 



/. Kinds. 

A. As to Form 

1. Strong. 

2. Weak. 

a. Irregular. 

b. Regular. 



.80 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

B. As to Use: 

1. Transitive. 

2. Intransitive. 

IL Modifications: 

A. Voice : 

1. Active. 

2. Passive. 

B. Mood: 

1. Indicative. 

2. Imperative. 

3. Subjunctive. 

4. Infinitive. 

Uses of the Infinitive. 

1. Noun: 

a. Subject. 

b. Subjective Complement. 

c. Object of Verb. 

d. Used with the Prepositions, hut, about, etc. 

e. Appositive. 

2. Adjectives: 

a. Limiting a Noun or a Pronoun. 

3. Adverb: 

a. Modifying a Verb. 

b. Modifying an Adjective. 

c. Modifying an Adverb. 

4. Independent Element. 



THE CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS AS TO FORM 181 

C. Tense : 

1. Present. 

2. Past. 

3. Future. 

4. Present Perfect. 
5." Past Perfect. 

6. Future Perfect. 

D. Person. > 

E. Number. 

///. Verbal Forms: 

A. Participles : 

1. Modifications: 

a. Voice : 

1. Active. 

2. Passive. 

b. Tense : 

1. Present. 

2. Past or Perfect. 

3. Present Perfect. 

2. Uses: 

a. Same as Adjective. 

b. With Noun as Nominative Absolute. 

B. Gerunds : 

1. Modifications: 
a. Voice: 

1. Active. 

2. Passive. 



182 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

b. Tense: 

1. Present. 

2. Present Perfect. 

2. Uses: 

a. Subject. 

b. Subjective Complement. 

c. Object of Verb. 

d. Used with a Preposition. 



STUDY 177 
Parsing Verbs 
Parse all the verbs in this selection : 

THE BURIAL OF MOSES 

By Nebo's lonely mountain, 

On this side Jordan's wave, 
In a vale in the land of Moab 

There lies a lonely grave; 
And no man knows that sepulchre, 

And no man saw it e'er. 
For the angels of God upturn'd the sod 

And laid the dead man there. 

That was the grandest funeral 

That ever pass'd on earth; 
But no man heard the tramping 

Or saw the train go forth; 
Noiselessly as the daylight 

Comes back when night is done. 
And the crimson streak on ocean's cheek 

Grows into the great sun ; 



PARSING VERBS 183 

Noiselessly as the spring-time 

Her crown of verdure weaves, 
And all the trees on all the hills 

Open their thousand leaves ; 
So, without sound of music, 

Or voice of them that wept. 
Silently down from the mountain's crown 

The great procession swept. 

Perchance the bald old eagle 

On gray Beth-peor's height 
Out of his lonely eyrie 

Look'd on the wondrous sight; 
Perchance the lion stalking 

Still shuns that hallow'd spot ; 
For beast and bird have seen and heard 

That which man knoweth not. 

But when the warrior dieth, 

His comrades in the war, 
With arms reversed and muffled drum, 

Follow his funeral car ; 
They show the banners taken, 

They tell his battles won, 
And after him lead his masterless steed, 

While peals the minute gun. 

Amid the noblest of the land 

We lay the sage to rest. 
And give the bard an honor'd place. 

With costly marble drest. 
In the great minster transept 

Where lights like glories fall, 
And the sweet choir sings, and the organ rings 

Along the emblazon'd wall. 



184 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

This was the truest warrior 

That ever buckled sword, 
This the most gifted poet 

That ever breathed a word ; 
And never earth's philosopher 

Traced with his golden pen, 
On the deathless page, truths half so sage 

As he wrote down for men. 

And had he not high honor; — 

The hill-side for a pall, 
To lie in state while angels wait 

With stars for tapers tall, 
And the dark rock pines, like tossing plumes, 

Over his bier to wave, 
And God's own hand, in that lonely land, 

To lay him in the grave. 

In that strange grave, without a name. 

Whence his uncoffin'd clay 
Shall break again, O wondrous thought! 

Before the judgment-day, 
And stand with glory wrapt around, 

On the hills he never trod. 
And speak of the strife, that won our life, 

With the incarnate Son of God.- 

O lonely grave in Moab's land! 

O dark Beth-peor's hill! 
Speak to these curious hearts of ours, 

And teach them to be still. 
God hath His mysteries of grace. 

Ways that we cannot tell ; 
He hides them deep, like the hidden sleep 

Of him He loved so well. 

MRS. C. F. ALEXAXDFR. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "BE" 

STUDY 178 
Conjugation of the Verb "Be" 

PRINCIPAL PARTS 

Pres. Infinitive Past Tense Perf. Participle 



185 



To be 



Was 



Been 



Indicative Mood 

PRESENT TENSE 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Person, I am We are 

2d Person, You are You are 

3d Person, He is Thev are 



PAST TENSE 



I was 
You were 
He was 



I shall be 
You will be 
He will be 



We wxre 
You were 
They were 



FUTURE TENSE 



We shall be 
You will be 
Thev will be 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 



I have been 
You have been 
He has been 



We have been 
You have been 
Thev have been 



186 



STUDIES IN ENGLISH 



PAST PERFECT TENSE 



I had been 
You had been 
He had been 



We had been 
You had been 
They had been 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 



I shall have been 


We shall have been 


You will have been 


You will have been 


He will have been 


They will have been 


SUBJ 


UNCTivE Mood 


PRESENT TENSE 


I be 


We be 


You be 


You be 


Hebe 


They be 




PAST TENSE 


I were 


We were 


You were 


You were 


He were 


They were 


PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 


I have been 


. We have been 


You have been 


You have been 


He have been 


They have been 


PAST 


PERFECT TENSE 


I had been 


We had been 


You had been 


You had been 


He had been 


They had been 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "SEE' 

Imperative Mood 

PRESENT TENSE 

Be (you) Be (you) 

Infinitive Mood 



187 



PRESENT 


PRESENT PERFECT 


To be 


To have been 




Participles 


PRESENT 


PAST OR PERFECT PRESI 


Being 


Been . Having 




Gerunds 


PRESENT 


PRESENT PERFECT 


Being 


Having been 



STUDY 179 
The Conjugation of the Verb "See' 

Principal Parts 



PRESENT 



PAST TENSE 



PAST OR PERF. PARTICIPLE 



See 



Saw 

ACTIVE VOICE 

Indicative Mood 

PRESENT TENSE 

Singular Plural 

1st Person, I see We see 

2d Person, You see You see 

3d Person, He sees They see 



Seen 



188 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

PAST TENSE 

I saw We saw 

You saw Yoii saw 

He saw They saw 

FUTURE TENSE 

I shall see We shall see 

You will see You will see 

He will see They will see 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

I have seen We have seen 

You have seen You have seen 

He has seen They have seen 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

I had seen We had seen 

You had seen You had seen 

He had seen They had seen 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

I shall have seen We shall have seen 

You will have seen You will have seen 

He will have seen They will have seen 

Subjunctive Mood 





PRESENT TENSE 


I see 


Wt see 


You see 


You see 


He see 


Thev see 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "'SEE' 



189 



I saw 
You saw 
He saw 

I have seen 
You have seen 
H^ have seen 

I had seen 
You had seen 
He had seen 



See (you) 



PRESENT TENSE 

To see 



PAST TENSE 

We saw 
You saw 
They saw 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

We have seen 
You have seen 
They have seen 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

We had seen 
You had seen 
They had seen 

Imperative Mood 

PRESENT TENSE 

See (you) 
Infinitive Mood 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

To have seen 



Participles 



PRESENT TENSE 



Seeing 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

Having- seen 



Gerunds 



PRESENT TENSE 



Seeing 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

Having seen 



190 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

STUDY 180 
The Conjugation of the Verb "See"— (Continued) 

PASSIVE VOICE 

Indicative Mood 

PRESENT TENSE 

1st Person, I am seen We are seen 

2d Person, You are seen You are seen 
3d Person, He is seen They are seen 

PAST TENSE 

I was seen We were seen 

You were seen You were seen 

He was seen They were seen 

FUTURE TENSE 

I shall be seen We shall be seen 

You will be seen You will be seen 

He will be seen They will be seen 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

I have been seen We have been seen 

You have been seen You have been seen 

He has been seen # They have been seen 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

I had been seen We had been seen 

You had been seen You had been seen 

He had been seen Thev had been seen 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "SEE" 191 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

I shall have been seen We shall have been seen 

You will have been seen You will have been seen 
He will have been seen They will have been seen 

Subjunctive Mood 

PRESENT TENSE ^ 

I be seen We be seen 

You be seen You be seen 

He be seen They be seen 

PAST TENSE 

I w^ere seen We were seen 

You were seen You were seen 

He were seen They were seen 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

I have been seen We have been seen 

You have seen seen You have been seen 

He have been seen They have been seen 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

I had been seen We had been seen 

You had been seen You had been seen 

He had been seen They had been seen 

Imperative Mood 

1 PRESENT TENSE 

Be (you) seen Be (you) seen 



192 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

Infinitive Mood 

PRESENT TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

To be seen To have been seen 

Participles 

PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

Being seen Seen Having been seen 

Gerunds 

PRESENT TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

Being seen Having been seen 



STUDY 181 

Progressive Form 

The Conjugation of the Verb "See"— (Continued) 

ACTIVE VOICE 

Indicative Mood 

PRESENT TENSE 

1st Person, I am seeing We are seeing 
2d Person, You are seeing You are seeing 
3d Person, He is seeing They are seeing 

PAST TENSE 

I was seeing We were seeing 

You were seeing You w^ere seeing 

He was seeing They were seeing 

FUTURE TENSE 

I shall be seeing We shall be seeing 

You will be seeing You will be seeing 

He will be seeing They will be seeing 



PROGRESSIVE FORM 193 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

I have been seeing We have been seeing 

You have been seeing You have been seeing 

He has been seeing They have been seeing 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

I had been seeing We had been seeing 

You had been seeing You had been seeing 

He had been seeing They had been seeing 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

I shall have been seeing We shall have been seeing 
You will have been seeing You will have been seeing 
He will have been seeing They will have been seeing 

Subjunctive Mood 

PRESENT TENSE 

I be seeing We be seeing 

You be seeing You be seeing 

He be seeing They be seeing 

PAST TENSE 

I were seeing We were seeing 

You wtre seeing You were seeing 

He were seeing They were seeing 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

I have been seeing We have been seeing 

You have been seeing You have been seeing 
He have been seeing They have been seeing 



194 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

I had been seeing We had been seeing 

You had been seeing You had been seeing 

He had been seeing They had been seeing 

Imperative Mood 

PRESENT TENSE 

Be (you) seeing Be (you) seeing 

Infinitive Mood 

PRESENT TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

To be seeing To have been seeing 

Participles 

PRESENT TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 



Having been seeing 



Gerunds 

PRESENT TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

Having been seeing 



STUDY 182 
The Synopsis of the Verb "See'' 

The tabulation of a verb in a given person, num- 
ber, voice, and mood is a synopsis. 

In the Third Person, Singular Number, Active 
Voice. 

Indicative Mood 

Present Tense — He sees 
Past Tense — He saw 



THE SYNOPSIS OF THE VERB "SEE" 195 

Future Tense — He will see 
Present Perfect Tense — He has seen 
Past Perfect Tense — He had seen 
Future Perfect Tense — He will have seen 

Subjunctive Mood 

Present Tense — He see 

Past Tense — He saw 

Present Perfect Tense — He have seen 

Past Perfect Tense — He had seen 



STUDY 183 
The Synopsis of the Verb "See"— (Continued) 

In the Third Person, Singular Number, Passive 
Voice 

Indicative Mood 

Present Tense — He is seen 

Past Tense — He was seen 

Future Tense — He wall be seen 

Present Perfect Tense — He has been seen 

Past Perfect Tense — He had been seen 

Future Perfect Tense — He will have been seen 

Subjunctive Mood 

Present Tense — He be seen 

Past Tense — He were seen 

Present Perfect Tense — He have been seen 

Past Perfect Tense — He had been seen - 



196 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

STUDY 184 
The Principal Parts of a Sentence 

1. Subject: 

a. Word — Charity suffereth long and is kind. 

b. Phrase — To study is to improve. 

c. Clause — What has been zvritten shall remain. 

2. Predicate: 

a. V'erb (always) — The wind blozvs. 

b. Complement (sometimes). 
I. Kinds of Complements: 

1. Subjective: 

(a) Word — The dog is a pointer. 

(b) Phrase — He is zinth his sister. 

(c) Clause — This is zvhat the people enjoy, 

2. Object: 

(a) Word — I hear the shouts of the children. 

(b) Phrase — We should learn to govern ourselves. 

(c) Clause — They proved that the earth is round. 

3. Objective: 

(a) Word — They call him captain. 

(b) Phrase — He sent the top spinning rapidly on 

the floor. 

(c) Clause — They made him zvhat he ought to he. 

STUDY 185 
The Order of Analysis of a Sentence 

1. Classification as to Form: 

a. Simple. 

b. Compound. 

c. Complex. 



THE ORDER OF ANALYSIS OF A SENTENCE 197 

2. Classification as to Use: 

a. Declarative. 

b. Imperative. 

c. Interrogative. 

d. Exclamatory. 

3. Entire Subject. 

In this include all word, phrase, or clause 
modifiers. 

4. Entire Predicate. 

In this include all word, phrase, or clause 
modifiers. 

5. Simple Subject. 

The subject without modifiers. 

6. Modifiers of Simple Subject. 

These should be taken in the order in which 
they stand in the sentence. Should there 
be a clause among these it should be ana- 
lyzed in its turn according to the outline. 

7. Simple Predicate. 

The predicate w^ithout modifiers. 

8. Modifiers of Simple Predicate. 

Refer to note on modifiers of subject. Any 
word or words completing the predicate, 
as object or other constructions, should 
•be analyzed as modifiers of the predicate. 



CHAPTER XII 



SELECTIONS FOR STUDY 

Because grammar is learned by studying language, an effort 
has been made to supply an abundance of material throughout 
the book, but some classes need more work on a particular 
topic than others. In order that teachers may have a variety 
of such material for supplementary work immediately avail- 
able for all pupils, the following selections have been made, 
The particular use to be made of any selection, or part of a 
selection, is left to the discretion of the individual teacher. 
In the main, the material will be found suitable for supple- 
menting the more advanced work, but some of it may be used 
as soon as pupils have a fair knowledge of the elements of a 
sentence, and of the parts of speech. 

There is danger that the grammatical study of a long selec- 
tion will grow monotonous, and care should be taken to avoid 
keeping the children very long at one selection. To be interest- 
ing, there must be a certain freshness in material. 

Grandfather's Chair 

Grandfather had been sitting in his old armchair all that 
pleasant afternoon, while the children were pursuing their 
various sports, far off or near at hand. Sometimes you would 
have said, "Grandfather is asleep ;" but still, even when his 
eyes were closed, his thoughts were with the young people, 
playing among the flowers and shrubbery in the garden. 

He heard the voice of Laurence, who had taken possession 
of a heap of decayed branches which the gardener had lopped 
from the fruit trees, and was building a Httle hut for his 

198 



SELECTIOxXS FOR STUDY 199 

cousin Clara and himself. He heard Clara's gladsome voice 
too, as she weeded and watered the flower bed which had been 
given her for her own. He could have counted every foot- 
step that Charley took, as he trundled his wheelbarrow along 
the gravel walk. And though Grandfather was old and gray- 
haired, yet his heart leaped with joy whenever little Alice 
came fluttering like a butterfly into the room. She had made 
each of the children her playmate in turn, and now made 
Grandfather her playmate, too, and thought him the merriest 
of all. 

At last the children grew weary of their sport ; because a 
summer afternoon is like a long lifetime to the young. So they 
came into the room together, and clustered around Grand- 
father's great chair. Little Alice, who was hardly five years 
old, took the privilege of the youngest, and climbed his knee. 
It was a pleasant thing to behold that fair and golden-haired 
child in the lap of the old man, and to think that, different 
as they were, the hearts of both could be gladdened with the 
same joys. 

"Grandfather," said little Alice, laying her head back upon 
his arm, "I am very tired now. You must tell me a story to 
make me go to sleep." 

"That is not what the story-tellers like," answered Grand- 
father, smiling. "They are better satisfied when they can keep 
their auditors awake." 

"But here are Laurence, and Charlie, and I," cried Cousin 
Clara, who was twice as old as little Alice. "We will all three 
keep wide awake. And pray. Grandfather, tell us a story 
about this strange-looking old chair." 

The chair in which Grandfather sat was made of oak, which 
had grown dark with age, but had been rubbed and polished 
till it shone as bright as mahogany. It was very large and 
heavy, and had a back that rose high above Grandfather's 
white head. This back was curiously carved in open-work 



200 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

so as to represent flowers and foliage, and other devices, 
which the children had often gazed at, but could never under- 
stand what they meant. On the very tip-top of the chair, 
over the head of Grandfather himself, was the likeness of a 
lion's head, which had such a savage grin that you would 
almost expect to hear it growl and snarl. 

"Do, Grandfather, talk to us about this chair," she re- 
peated. 

"Well, child," said Grandfather, patting Clara's cheek, 
"I can tell you a great many stories of my chair. Perhaps 
your cousin Laurence would like to hear them too. They 
would teach him something about the history and distinguished 
people of his country, which he has never read in any of his 
school books." 

Cousin Laurence was a boy of twelve, a bright scholar, 
in whom an early thoughtfulness and sensibility began to 
show themselves. His young fancy kindled at the idea of 
knowing all the adventures of this venerable chair. He looked 
eagerly in Grandfather's face ; and even Charley, a bold, brisk, 
restless little fellow of nine, sat himself down on the carpet, 
and resolved to be quiet for at least ten minutes, should the 
story be so long. 

Meanwhile, little Alice was already asleep ; so Grandfather. 
being much pleased with such an attentive audience, began to 
talk about matters that happened long ago. 

NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE. 

The Land of Pluck 

Far over the sea is a famous little country, generally 
known as Holland ; but that name, even if it sliould mean 
Hollow land, or How land, does not describe it half so well 
as this — The Little Land of Pluck. 



SELECTIONS FOR STUDY 201 

V^erily, a queerer bit of earth was never shone upon by 
the sun or washed by the tide. It is the oddest, funniest 
country that ever raised its head from the waves (andbetween 
ourselves, it does not quite do that), the most topsy-turvy 
landscape, the most amphibious spot in the universe, — as the 
Man in the, ]\Ioon cannot deny, — the chosen butt of the ele- 
ments, and good-naturedly, the laughing stock of mankind. 
Its people are the queerest and drollest of all nations ; and 
yet so plucky, so wise and resolute and strong, i that "beating 
the Dutch" has become a familiar byword for expressing the 
limits of mortal performance. 

As for the country, for centuries it was not exactly any- 
where ; at least it objected to remaining just the same for 
any length of time, in any one place. It may be said to have 
lain around loose on the waters of a certain portion of Europe, 
playing peek-a-boo with its inhabitants ; now coming to the 
surface here and there to attend to matters, then taking a dive 
for change of scene — and a most disastrous dive it often 
proved. 

Rip Van Winkle himself changed less between his great 
sleeping and waking, than Holland has altered many a time, 
between sunset and dawn. All its firmness and permanence 
seems to have been soaked out of it, or rather to have filtered 
from the land into the people. 

Every field hesitates whether to turn into a pond or not, 
and the ponds always are trying to leave the country by the 
shortest cut. One would suppose that under this condition 
of things the only untroubled creatures would be turtles and 
ducks ; but no, strangest and most mysterious of all, every 
living thing in Holland appears to be thoroughly placid and 
content. The Dutch mind, so to speak, is at once dry and 
waterproof. Little children run about in fields where once 
their grandfathers sailed over the billows ; and youths and 
maidens row their pleasure boats where their ancestors played 



202 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

''tag" among the haystacks. When the tide sweeps uncere- 
moniously over Mynheer's garden, he lights his pipe, takes 
his fishing rod, and sits down on his back porch to try his 
luck. If his pet pond breaks loose and slips away, he whistles, 
puts up a dam so that it cannot come back, and decides upon 
the crop to be raised in its place. None but the Dutch could 
live so tranquilly in Holland; though, for that matter, if it 
had not been for the Dutch, we may be sure by this time there 
would be no Holland at all. 

Yet this very Holland, besides holding its own place, has 
managed to gain a foothold on almost every quarter of the 
globe. An account of its colonies is a history in itself. In the 
East Indies alone it has under its authority more than thirty 
million people. 

It is said the Greenlanders, in spite of the discomforts of 
their country, become so very fond of it that even the extreme 
cold is considered a luxury. In some such way, I suppose, 
the Hollander becomes infatuated with water. He deems no 
landscape, no pleasure-spot complete without it. It is funny 
to see the artificial pond that a Dutchman will have beneath 
his very window, and funny, also, to see how soon the pond 
will try to look like land, by covering itself over with a coat 
of green. 

Many of the city people have little summer houses or 
pavilions near the outskirts of the town. They are built just 
large enough for the family to sit in. Each zomerhiiis, as it 
is called, is sure to be surrounded by a ditch, if indeed it is 
not built out over the water. Its chief ornaments are its little 
bridges, its fanciful roof, and its Dutch motto painted over the 
entrance. Hither the family repair on summer afternoons. 
Mynheer sips his cofi^ee, smokes his pipe, and gazes at the 
water. His vroinv knits or sews ; and the children fish from 
the windows, or climb little bridges, or paddle about in skiffs, 
gathering yellow water lilies. Near by. perhaps they can 



SELECTIONS FOR STUDY 203 

hear some bargeman's wife singing her cheery song while 
busy at her housekeeping, or rather homekeeping, for she 
Hves on the canal boat. That is her flower garden growing on 
the corner of the deck, quite unconscious that it is doing any- 
thing remarkable in blooming over the water. In fact, it is 
in much less danger of sinking there than it would be on 
shore. — mary mapes dodge. 

Waiting ^ 

Serene, I fold my hands and wait, 

Nor care for wind, or tide, or sea ; 
I rave no more 'gainst time or fate, 

For lo ! my own shall come to me. 

Asleep, awake by night or day, 

The friends I seek are seeking me. 

No wind can drive my barque astray, 
Nor change the tide of destiny. 

The waters know their own, and draw 
The brook that springs in yonder height; 

So flows the good with equal law 
Unto the soul of pure delight. 

The stars come nightly to the sky; 

The tidal wave unto the sea; 
Nor time, nor space, nor deep, nor high, 

Can keep my own away from me. 

Serene, I fold my hands and wait, 
Whate'er the storms of life may be, 

Faith guides me up to heaven's gate. 
And love will bring my own to me. 

JOHN BURROUGHS. 



204 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

Way to Heaven 

Heaven is not reached at a single bound; 
But we build the ladder by which we rise 
From the lowly earth to the vaulted skies, 

And we mount to the summit round by round. 

I count this thing to be grandly true : 

That a noble deed is a step toward God — 
Lifting the soul from the common sod 

To a purer air and a broader view. 

We rise by things that are under our feet ; 

By what we have mastered of good and gain ; 

By the pride deposed and the passion slain 
And the vanquished ills that we hourly meet. 

We hope, we aspire, we resolve, we trust, 
When the morning calls us to life and light ; 
But our hearts grow weary and ere the night, 

Our lives are trailing the sordid dust. 

HOLLAND. 

The Chambered Nautilus 

This is the ship of pearl which, poets feign. 

Sails the unshadowed main, — 

The venturous bark that flings 
On the sweet summer wind its purpled wings 
In gulfs enchanted, where the Siren sings, 

And coral reefs lie bare. 
Where the cold sea-maids rise to sun their streaming hair. 

Its webs of living gauze no more unfurl ; 

Wrecked is the ship of pearl ! 

And every chambered cell, 
Where its dim dreaming life was wont to dwell, 



SELECTIONS FOR STUDY 205 

As the frail tenant shaped his growing shell, 

Before thee lies revealed, — 
Its irised ceiling rent, its sunless crypt unsealed ! 

Year after year beheld the silent toil 
That spread his lustrous coil ; 

Still, as the spiral grew, 
He left the past year's dwelling for the new, . ■ 

Stole with soft step its shining archway through,^ 

Built up its idle door, 
Stretched in his last-found home, and knew the old no more. 

Thanks for the heavenly message brought by thee, 

Child of the wandering sea. 

Cast from her lap, forlorn ! 
From thy dead lips a clearer note is born 
Than ever Triton blew^ from wreathed horn ! 

While on mine ear it rings, 
Through the deep caves of thought I hear a voice that sings : — 

Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul, 

As the swift seasons roll! 

Leave thy low^-vaulted past ! 
Let each new temple, nobler than the last 
Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast, 

Till thou at length art free, 
Leaving thine outgrown shell by life's unresting sea! 

HOLMES. 

The Great Stone Face 

One afternoon, when the sun w^as going dowm, a mother 
and her little boy sat at the door of their cottage, talking 
about the Great Stone Face. They had but to lift their eyes, 
and there it was plainly to be seen, though miles away, with 
the sunshine brightening all its features. 



206 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

And what was the Great Stone Face? 

Embosomed amongst a family of lofty mountains, there 
was a valley so spacious that it contained many thousand 
inhabitants. Some of these good people dwelt in log huts, 
with the black forest all around them, on the steep and difficult 
hillsides. Others had their homes in comfortable farmhouses, 
and cultivated the rich soil on the gentle slopes or level sur- 
faces of the valley. Others, again, were congregated into 
populous villages, w^here some wild, highland rivulet, tum- 
bhng down from its birthplace in the upper mountain region, 
had been caught and tamed by human cunning, and compelled 
to turn the machinery of cotton factories. The inhabitants of 
this valley, in short, were numerous, and of many modes of 
life. But all of them, grown people and children, had a kind 
of familiarity with the Great Stone Face, although some pos- 
sessed the gift of distinguishing this grand natural phenomenon 
more perfectly than many of their neighbors. 

The Great Stone Face, then, was a work of Nature in her 
mood of majestic playfulness, formed on the perpendicular 
side of a mountain by some immense rocks, which had been 
thrown together in such a position as, when viewed at a proper 
distance, precisely to resemble the features of the human 
countenance. It seemed as if an enormous giant, or a Titan, 
had sculptured his own likeness on the precipice. There 
was the broad arch of the forehead, a hundred feet in height ; 
the nose, with its long bridge ; and the vast lips, which, if 
they could have spoken, would have rolled their thunder 
accents from one end of the valley to the other. True it is, 
that if the spectator approached too near, he lost the outline of 
the gigantic visage, and could discern only a heap of ponder- 
ous and gigantic rocks, piled in chaotic ruin one upon another, 
retracing his steps, however, the wondrous features would 
again be seen ; and the farther he withdrew from them, 
the more like a human face, with all its original divinity 



SELECTIONS FOR STUDY 207 

intact, did they appear ; until, as it grew dim in the distance, 
with the clouds and glorified vapor of the mountains cluster- 
ing about it, the Great Stone Face seemed positively to be 
alive. 

It was a happy lot for children to grow up to manhood or 
womanhood with the Great Stone Face before their eyes, for 
all the features were noble, and the expression was at once 
grand and sweet, as if it were the glow of a vast, warm heart, 
that embraced all mankind in its affections, and' had room for 
more. It was an education only to look at it. According 
to the belief of many people, the valley owed much of its 
fertility to this benign aspect that was continually beaming 
over it, illuminating the clouds, and infusing its tenderness 
into the sunshine. 

As we began with saying, a mother and her little boy sat 
at their cottage door, gazing at the Great Stone Face, and 
talking about it. The child's name was Ernest. 

"Mother," said he, while the Titanic visage smiled upon 
him, 'T wish that it could speak, for it looks so very kindly 
that its voice must needs be pleasant. If I were to see a 
man with such a face, I should love him dearly." 

*Tf an old prophecy should come to pass," answered his 
mother, "we may see a man sometime or other with exactly 
such a face as that." 

"What prophecy do you mean, dear mother?" eagerly 
inquired Ernest. "Pray tell me all about it!" 

So his mother told him a story that her own mother had 
told her, when she herself was younger than little Ernest; 
a story not of things that were past, but of what was yet to 
come ; a story, nevertheless, so very old, that even the Indians, 
w^ho formerly inhabited this valley, had heard it from their 
forefathers, to whom, as they affirmed, it had been murmured 
by the mountain streams, and whispered by the wind among 
the tree tops. The purport was that, at some future day, a 



208 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

child should be born hereabouts, who was desthied to become 
the greatest and noblest personage of his time, and whose 
countenance, in manhood, should bear an exact resemblance 
to the Great Stone Face. Not a few old-fashioned people, 
and young ones likewise, in the ardor of their hopes, still 
cherished an enduring faith in this prophecy. But others, who 
had seen more of the world, had watched and waited till they 
were weary, and had beheld no man with such a face, nor any 
man that proved to be much greater or nobler than his neigh- 
bors, concluded it to be nothing but an idle tale. At all events, 
the great man of the prophecy had not yet appeared. 

"O mother, dear mother !" cried Ernest, clapping his hands 
above his head, "I do hope that I shall live to see him !" 

His mother was an affectionate and thoughtful woman, 
and felt that it was wisest not to discourage the generous 
hopes of her little boy. So she only said to him, "Perhaps 
you may.'' 

And Ernest never forgot the story that his mother told 
him. It was always in his mind, whenever he looked upon 
the Great Stone Face. He spent his childhood in the log 
cottage where he was born, and was dutiful to his mother, and 
helpful to her in many things, assisting her much with his little 
hands, and more with his loving heart. In this manner, from 
a happy, yet often pensive child, he grew up to be a mild, quiet, 
unobtrusive boy, and sun-browned with labor in the fields, 
but with more intelligence brightening his aspect than is seen 
in many lads who have been taught at famous schools. Yet 
Ernest had had no teacher, save only that the Great Stone 
Face became one to him. When the toil of the day was over, 
he would gaze at it for hours, until he began to imagine that 
those vast features recognized him, and gave him a smile of 
kindness and encouragement, responsive to his own look of 
veneration. We must not take upon us to affirm that this was 
a mistake, althouo^h the Face mav have looked no more kindlv 



SELECTIONS FOR STUDY 209 

at Ernest than at all the world besides. But the secret was 
that the boy's tender and confiding simplicity discerned what 
other people could not see ; and thus the love, which was 
meant for all, became his peculiar portion. 

— NATHANIEL nAWTHORNE. 

Declaration of Independence 

When in the course of human events, it becomes necessary 
for one people to dissolve the political bands which have con- 
nected them with another, and to assume, among the powers 
of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws 
of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect 
to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare 
the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men are 
created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with 
certain inalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, 
and the pursuit of happiness ; that to secure these rights, gov- 
ernments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers 
from the consent of the governed ; that, whenever any form 
of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the 
right of the people to alter or to abolish it and to institute 
a new government, laying its foundations on such principles, 
and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem 
most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, 
indeed, will dictate that governments long established should 
not be changed for light and transient causes ; and, accord- 
ingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more 
disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right 
themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accus- 
tomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations 
pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to 
reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it 



210 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

is their duty, to throw off such government and to provide 
new guards for their future security. Such has been the 
patient sufferance of these colonies; and such is now the 
necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems 
of government. The history of the present King of Great 
Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations all 
having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny 
over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a 
candid world. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for 
redress in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have 
been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose char- 
acter is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, 
is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British breth- 
ren. We have warned them from time to time, of attempts 
by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction 
over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of 
our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to 
their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured 
them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow their 
usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections 
and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice 
of justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce 
in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold 
them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in 
peace, friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of 
America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the 
Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our inten- 
tions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people 
of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these 
united colonies, are, and of right ought to be, free and inde- 
pendent States ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to 



SELECTIONS FOR STUDY 211 

the British crown, and that all political connection between 
them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally 
dissolved ; and that, as free and independent States, they have 
full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, 
establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which 
independent States may of right do. And for the support 
of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of 
Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, 
our fortunes, and our sacred honof. 

The Old Clock on the Stairs 

Somewhat back from the village street 
Stands the old-fashioned country seat. 
Across its antique portico 
Tall poplar trees their shadows throw; 
And from its station in the hall 
An ancient timepiece says to all, — 
"Forever — never! 
Never — forever!" 

Halfway up the stairs it stands. 
And points and beckons with its hands 
From its case of massive oak, 
Like a monk, who, under his cloak. 
Crosses himself, and sighs, alas ! 
With sorrowful voice to all who pass,— 
"Forever — never ! 
Never — forever !" 

By day its voice is low and light ; 
But in the silent dead of night, 
Distinct as a passing footstep's fall. 
It echoes along the vacant hall, 



212 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

Along the ceiling, along the floor, 
And seems to say, at each chamber door, — 
''Forever — never ! 
Never — forever !" 

Through days of sorrow and of mirth. 
Through days of death and days of birth, 
Through every swift vicissitude 
Of changeful times, unchanged it has stood, 
And as if, like God, it all things saw. 
It calmly repeats those words of awe, — 
"Forever — never ! 
Never — forever !" 

In that mansion used to be 
True-hearted Hospitality ; 
His great fires up the chimney roared; 
The stranger feasted at his board ; 
But, like the skeleton at the feast, 
That warning timepiece never ceased, — 
"Forever — never ! 
Never — forever !" 

There groups of merry children played, 
There youths and maidens dreaming strayed ; 
O precious hours ! O golden prime, 
And affluence of love and time ! 
Even as a miser counts his gold, 
Those hours the ancient timepiece told, — 
"Forever — never ! 
Never — forever !" 

From that chamber, clothed in white, 

The bride came forth on her wedding night ; 



SELECTIONS FOR STUDY 213 

There in that silent room below, 
The dead lay in his shroud of snow; 
And in the hush that followed the prayer, 
Was heard the old clock on the stair, — 
"Forever — never! 
Never — forever !" 

All are scattered now and fled, 
Some are married, some are dead; , 
And when I ask with throbs of pain, 
*'Ah! when shall they all meet again?" 
As in the days long since gone by, 
The ancient timepiece makes reply, — 
"Forever — never ! 
Never — forever V 

Never here, forever there. 
Where all parting, pain and care, 
And death, and time shall disappear, — 
Forever there, but never here ! 
The horologe of Eternity 
Saycth this incessantly, — 
"Forever — never! 
Never — forever !" 

HENRY W. LONGFELLOW. 

The King of the Golden River 

In a secluded and mountainous part of Styria there was in 
olden time, a valley of the most surpassing and luxuriant 
fertility. It was surrounded on all sides by steep and rocky 
mountains, rising into peaks, which were always covered with 
snow, and from which a number of torrents descended in con- 
stant cataracts. One of these fell westward, over the face of 



214 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

a crag so high that, when the sun had set to everything else, 
and all below was darkness, his beams still shone full upon this 
waterfall, so that it looked like a shower of gold. It was there- 
fore called by the people of the neighborhood the Golden 
River. It was strange that none of these streams fell into 
the valley itself. They all descended on the other side of the 
mountains, and wound away through broad plains and by 
populous cities. But the clouds were drawn so constantly to 
the snowy hills, and rested so softly in the circular hollow, 
that, in time of drought and heat, when all the country round 
was burnt up, there was still rain in the little valley ; and its 
crops were so heavy, and its hay so high, and its apples so red, 
and its grapes so blue, and its wine so rich, and its honey so 
sweet, that it was a marvel to everyone who beheld it, and 
was commonly called the Treasure Valley. 

The whole of this little valley belonged to three brothers, 
called Schwartz, Hans, and Gluck. Schwartz and Hans, the 
two elder brothers, were very ugly men, with overhanging 
eyebrows and small, dull eyes, which were always half shut, 
so that you couldn't see into them, and always fancied they 
saw far into you. They lived by farming the Treasure Valley, 
and very good farmers they were. They killed everything 
that did not pay for its eating. They shot the blackbirds, 
because they pecked the fruit; and killed the hedgehogs, lest 
they should suck the cows ; they poisoned the crickets for 
eating crumbs in the kitchen ; and smothered the cicadas, which 
used to sing all summer in the lime trees. They worked their 
servants without any wages, till they would not work any more, 
and then quarreled with them, and turned them out of doors 
without paying them. It would have been very odd if, with 
such a farm, and such a system of farming, they hadn't got 
very rich ; and very rich they did get. They generally con- 
trived to keep their corn by them till it was very dear, and then 
sell it for twice its value ; they had heaps of gold lying about 



SELECTIONS FOR STUDY 215 

on their floors, yet it was never known that they had given 
so much as a penny or a crust in charity ; they never went to 
mass ; grumbled perpetually at paying tithes ; and were, in a 
word, of so cruel and grinding a temper, as to receive from 
all those with whom they had any dealings, the nickname of 
the ''Black Brothers." 

The youngest brother, Gluck, was as completely opposed 
in both appearance and character, to his seniors as could 
possibly be imagined or desired. He was not above twelve 
years old, fair, blue-eyed and kind in temper to every living 
thing. He did not, of course, agree particularly well with his 
brothers, or, rather, they did not agree with him. He was 
usually appointed to the honorable office of turnspit, when 
there was anything to roast, which was not often ; for, to do 
the brothers justice, they were hardly less sparing upon them- 
selves than upon other people. At other times he used to clean 
the shoes, the floors, and sometimes the plates, occasionally, 
getting what was left on them, by way of encouragement, and 
a wholesome quantity of dry blows, by way of education. 

Things went on in this manner for a long time. At last 
came a very wet summer and everything went wrong in the 
country round. The hay had hardly been got in, when the 
haystacks were floated bodily down to the sea by inundation ; 
the vines were cut to pieces with the hail ; the corn was all 
killed by a black blight ; only in the Treasure Valley, as usual, 
all was safe. As it had rain when there was rain nowhere else, 
so it had sun when there was sun nowhere else. Everybody 
came to buy corn at the farm and went away pouring maledic- 
tions on the Black Brothers. They asked what they liked and 
got it, except from the poor people, who could only beg, and 
several of whom were starved at their very door, without the 
slightest regard or notice. 

It was drawing toward winter, and very cold w^eather, when 
one day the two elder brothers had gone out, with their usual 



216 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

warning to little Gluck, who was left to mind the roast, that 
he was to let nobody in and give nothing out. Gluck sat down 
quite close to the fire, for it was raining very hard, and the 
kitchen walls were by no means dry or comfortable looking. 
He turned and turned, and the roast got nice and brown. 
"What a pity," thought Gluck, ''my brothers never ask any- 
body to dinner. I'm sure, when they've got such a nice piece 
of mutton as this, and nobody else has got so much as a piece 
of dry bread, it would do their hearts good to have somebody 
eat it with them." 

Just as he spoke, there came a double knock at the house- 
door, yet heavy and dull, as though the knocker had been tied 
up, — more like a puff than a knock. 

"It must be the wind," said Gluck ; "nobody else would ven- 
ture to knock double knocks at our door." 

No ; it wasn't the wind ; there it came again very hard, and, 
what was particularly astounding, the knocker seemed to be in 
a hurry, and not to be in the least afraid of the consequences. 
Gluck went to the window, opened it, and put his head out to 
see who it was. 

It was the most extraordinary-looking little gentleman he 
had ever seen in his life. He had a very large nose, slightly 
brass-colored; his cheeks were very round and very red, and 
might have warranted a supposition that he had been blowing 
a refractory fire for the last eight-and-forty hours ; his eyes 
twinkled merrily through long silky eyelashes ; his mustaches 
curled twice round like a corkscrew on each side of his mouth ; 
and his hair, of a curious mixed pepper-and-salt color, de- 
scended far over his shoulders. He was about four feet six 
in height, and wore a conical pointed cap of nearly the same 
altitude, decorated with a black feather some three feet long. 
His doublet was prolonged behind into something resembling 
a violent exaggeration of what is now termed a "swallow-tail," 
but was much obscured bv the swellinsf folds of an enormous 



SELECTIONS FOR STUDY 217 

black glossy-looking cloak which must have been very much 
too long in calm wepther, as the wind, whistling round the old 
house, carried it clear out from the wearer's shoulders to 
about four times his own length. 

Gluck was so perfectly paralyzed by the singular appearance 
of his visitor, that he remained fixed without uttering a word, 
until the old gentleman, having performed another and a more 
energetic concerto on the knocker, turned round to look after 
his fly-away cloak. In so doing he caught sight of Gluck's 
little yellow head jammed in the window, with its mouth and 
eyes very wide open indeed. 

''Hello !" said the little gentleman, "that's not the way to 
answer the door. I'm wet, let me in." 

To do the little gentleman justice, he was wet. His feather 
hung down between his legs like a beaten puppy's tail, drip- 
ping like an umbrella ; and from the ends of his mustaches 
the water was running into his waistcoat-pockets, and out 
again like a mill-stream. 

*'I beg pardon, sir," said Gluck, "Vm very sorry, but I 
really can't." 

''Can't what ?" said the old gentleman. 

''I can't let you in, sir, — I can't indeed ; my brothers would 
beat me to death, sir, if I thought of such a thing. What do 
you want, sir?" 

"Want?" said the old gentleman, petulantly, "I want fire 
and shelter; and there's your great fire there blazing, crack- 
ling, and dancing on the walls, with nobody to feel it. Let me 
in, I say ; I only want to warm myself." 

Gluck had had his head, by this time, so long out of the 
window that he began to feel it was really unpleasantly cold, 
and when he turned, and saw the beautiful fire rustling and 
roaring, and throwing long bright tongues up the chimney, 
as if it were licking its chops at the savory smell of the leg of 
mutton, his heart melted within him that it should be burning- 



218 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

away for nothing. "He does look very wet," said little Gluck; 
"ril just let him in for a quarter of an hour." Round he went 
to the door, and opened it ; and as the little gentleman walked 
in, through the house came a gust of wind that made the old 
chimneys totter. 

"That's a good boy," said the little gentleman. "Never 
mind your brothers. I'll talk to them." 

"Pray, sir, don't do any such thing," said Gluck. "I can't 
let you stay till they come ; they'd be the death of me." 

"Dear me," said the old gentleman, "I'm very sorry to hear 
that. How long may I stay?" 

"Only till the mutton's done, sir," replied Gluck, "and it's 
very brown." 

Then the old gentleman walked into the kitchen and sat 
himself down on the hob, with the top of his cap accommodated 
up the chimney, for it was a great deal too high for the roof. 

"You'll soon dry there, sir," said Gluck, and sat down 
again to turn the mutton. But the old gentleman did 7tot 
dry there, but went on drip, drip, dripping among the cinders, 
and the fire fizzed and sputtered, and began to look very black 
and uncomfortable ; never was such a cloak ; every fold in it 
ran like a gutter. 

"I beg pardon, sir," said Gluck at length, after watching 
the water spreading in long quicksilver-like streams over the 
floor for a quarter of an hour; "mayn't I take your cloak?" 

"No, thank you," said the old gentleman. 

"Your cap, sir?" 

"I'm all right, thank you," said the old gentleman, rather 
gruffly. 

"But — sir — I'm very sorry," said Gluck, hesitatingly; "but 
— really, sir — you're putting the fire out." 

"It'll take longer to do the mutton then," replied the visitor, 
dryly. 

Gluck was very much puzzled by the behavior of his guest ; 



SELECTIONS FOR STUDY 219 

it was such a strange mixture of coolness and humility. He 
turned away at the string meditatively for another five minutes. 

"That mutton looks very nice," said the old gentleman, 
at length. "Can't you give me a little bit?" 

"Impossible, sir," said Gluck. 

"Vm very hungry," continued the old gentleman; "Fve 
had nothing to eat yesterday, nor to-day. They surely couldn't 
miss a bit from the knuckle !" 

He spoke in so very melancholy a tone that it quite melted 
Gluck's heart. "They promised me one slice to-day, sir," said 
he; "I can give you that, but not a bit more." 

"That's a good boy," said the old gentleman again. 

Then Gluck warmed a plate and sharpened a knife. "I 
don't care if I do get beaten for it," thought he. Just as he had 
cut a large slice out of the mutton, there came a tremendous 
rap at the door. The old gentleman jumped off the hob, as 
if it had suddenly become inconveniently warm. Gluck fitted 
the slice into the mutton again, with desperate efforts at 
exactitude, and ran to open the door. 

"What did you keep us waiting in the rain for?" said 
Schwartz, as he walked in, throwing his umbrella in Gluck's 
face, 

"Ay! what for, indeed, you little vagabond?" said Hans, 
administering an educational box on the ear, as he followed 
his brother into the kitchen. 

"Bless my soul !" said Schwartz, when he opened the door. 

"Amen," said the little gentleman, who had taken his cap 
off,- and was standing in the middle of the kitchen, bowing 
with the utmost possible velocity. 

"Who's that?" said Schwartz, catching up a rolling-pin, 
and turning to Gluck with a fierce frown. 

"I don't know, indeed, brother," said Gluck, in great terror. 

"How did he get in?" roared Schwartz. 



220 STUDIES IN ENGLIS1[ 

*'My dear brother," said Gluck deprecatingly, "he was .^o 
very wet!" 

The rolling-pin was descending on Gluck's head; but, at 
the instant, the old gentleman interposed his conical cap, on 
which it crashed with a shock that shook the water out of it 
all over the room. What was very odd, the rolling-pin no 
sooner touched the cap, than it flew out of Schwartz's hand, 
spinning like a straw in a high wind, and fell into the corner 
at the further end of the room. 

"Who are you, sir?" demanded Schwartz, turning upon 
him. 

"What's your business?" snarled Hans. 

"Tm a poor old man, sir," the little gentleman began very 
modestly, "and I saw your fire through the window, and 
begged shelter for a quarter of an hour." 

"Have the goodness to walk out again, then," said Schwartz. 
"We've quite enough water in our kitchen, without making 
it a drying-house." 

"It is a cold day to turn an old man out in, sir; look at my 
gray hairs." They hung down to his shoulders, as I told you 
before. 

"Ay !" said Hans, "there are enough of them to keep you 
warm. Walk !" 

"I'm very, very hungry, sir; couldn't you spare me a bit of 
bread before I go?" 

"Bread, indeed !" said Schwartz ; "do you suppose we've 
nothing to do with our bread but to give it to such red-nosed 
fellows as you?" 

"Why don't you sell your feather?" said Hans sneeringly. 
"Out with you." 

"A little bit," said the old gentleman. 

"Be ofif !" said Schwartz. 

"Pray, gentlemen." 



SELECTIONS FOR STUDY 221 

"Off, and be hanged ;" cried Hans, seizing him by the collar. 
But he had no sooner touched the old gentleman's collar, than 
away he went after the rolling-pin, spinning round and round, 
till he fell into the corner on the top of it. Then Schwartz 
was very angry, and ran at the old gentleman to turn him out ; 
but he also had hardly touched him, when away he went 
after Hans and the rolling-pin, and hit his head against the 
wall as he tumbled into the corner. And so there they lay, 
all three. 

Then the old gentleman spun himself round with velocity 
in the opposite direction ; continued to spin until his long cloak 
was all wound neatly about him ; clapped his cap on his head, 
very much on one side (for it could not stand upright without 
going through the ceiling), gave an additional twist to his 
cork-screw mustaches, and replied with perfect coolness : 
^'Gentlemen, I wish you a very good morning. At twelve 
o'clock to-night Til call again ; after such a refusal of hospi- 
tality as I have just experienced, you will not be surprised if 
that visit is the last I ever pay you." 

— JOHN RUSKIN. 



222 



STUDIES IX ENGLISH 



List of Abbreviations 



Active act. 

Adjective adj. 

Adverb adv. 

Adverbial objective, .adv. obj. 

Apposition appos. 

Auxiliary aiixil. 

Collective col. 

Common com. 

Comparative compar. 

Complement comp. 

Conjunction conj. 

Coordinate coord. 

Copulative cop. 

Demonstrative demons. 

Direct modifier dir. mod. 

Exclamation exclam. 

Feminine fem. 

Future fut. 

Gender gen. 

Imperative imper. 

Indefinite indef. 

Indicative indie. 

Indirect object ind. obj. 

Infinitive infin. 

Interjection inter j. 

Interrogative interrog. 

Intransitive intrans. • 

Irregular irreg. 

Masculine masc. 

Neuter neut. 



Nominative nom. 

Nominative absolute. nom. abs. 

Number no. 

Object obj. 

Objective subject obj. subj. 

Participle part. 

Passive pass. 

Perfect perf. 

Person per. 

Personal pronoun. .. .pers. pron. 

Plural plu. 

Positive pos. 

Possessive poss. 

Predicate pred. 

Present pres. 

Principal prin. 

Preposition prep. 

Progressive prog. 

Pronoun .pron. 

Proper prop. 

Qualitative qual. 

Regular reg. 

Relative pronoun .... rel. pron. 

Singular sing. 

Subject subj. 

Subordinate . ■ subord. 

Subjunctive subj. 

Superlative superl. 

Transitive trans. 



COMPOSITION 

CHAPTER XIII 



STUDY 186 

The Art of Composition 

The orderly expression of thought in connected language 
is composition. 

Composition is one of the fine arts and should be 
studied as such. It has more practical value than 
music or painting, because it includes all forms of 
oral and written expression; and its influence as a 
means of developing a feeling for beauty is quite as 
great as that of either of the others, because it is used 
so much more generally. One cannot tell a story, 
make a five-minute speech, describe a piece of cloth, 
write a letter or an advertisement, and do it well, with- 
out applying the principles of composition. 

In the early stages of the study of composition, the 
main thing is practice, abundant practice in speaking 
and writing. Probably practice is always the most 
important factor, but that alone will not ensure suc- 
cess in composition. There are certain principles to 
be known and observed. Many of these principles 
are easily understood, because they are simple matters 

223 



224 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

of thoughtful common sense arranged in an orderly 
way. They have no value, however, if simply mem- 
orized as rules. If they are to be useful, one must 
know them as a skillful carpenter knows his tools, 
that is, by using them. 

But the basis of all composition is thought. One 
must know something, think something, • in order to 
have something to say. Pupils will usually write best 
upon those subjects about which they know most, or in 
which they are at the time most interested. Prob- 
ably the best mental condition for good composition 
arises with new knowledge and the desire to com- 
municate it to others. In this connection it should be 
remembered that the effort to write upon a subject 
not only makes clearer what is already more or less 
vaguely known, but develops new thought. Thoughts 
are living things and like other living things they 
reproduce their kind. The young student should not 
be discouraged if at first he finds he has little to say 
on a subject. If he writes what he knows, however 
little, and keeps his mind on the subject, he will find 
his ideas steadily multiplying and clarifying. 

This does not imply that the effort to write upon a 
subject can take the place of experience with the 
things of the world, or of investigation and study. On 
the contrary, composition depends almost entirely 
upon past experience, but its value is enhanced when 
it necessitates new investigation and study. 

One other condition is essential to success in com- 



THE ART OF COMPOSITION 225 

position, that is, a knowledge of the right use of words. 
The most important quahty of composition is clear- 
ness, and this implies clear, orderly thinking ; but one 
ma}^ think clearly and not write clearly. He must 
have control of certain words relating to his subject, 
and must know exactly what each word means. It 
is not necessary to know many words or to know 
large words. Short, simple words are generally best, 
but they must be used according to their true mean- 
ing. A good usable vocabulary depends upon atten- 
tion; attention to the language of those who talk 
well ; attention to the use of words in good literature ; 
attention to our own use of words. For acquiring 
easy control of a good vocabulary, nothing else com- 
pares with the careful study of good literature. There 
is much benefit in simply reading a good book once, 
but much more value in reading it carefully two or 
three times, if the interest can be maintained; and it 
is still better to memorize some of the choice passages. 
To^ get the fullest result one must live with a book, 
abide with it day after day, so that the thought and 
the language permeate his being and become part of 
him. It is much better to read a few books intensively 
than many superficially. 



CHAPTER XIV 



THE PARAGRAPH 

STUDY 187 

A Narrative Paragraph 

In composition the sentence or group of sentences refer- 
ring to a particular topic is a paragraph. 

The paragraph is the large unit of composition, 
and hence should be well understood. Consider the 
following : 

He too is dead, — he who, never having been born, we had 
hoped never would die ; not that he did-^Hke Rab — "exactly" 
die ; he was slain. He was fourteen, and getting deaf and 
blind, and a big bully of a retriever fell upon him one Sunday 
morning when the bells were ringing. Dick, who always 
fought at any odds, gave battle ; a Sabbatarian cab turned 
the corner, the big dog fled, and Dick was run over, — there 
in his own street, as all his many friends were going to church. 
His back was broken, and he died on Monday night with us all 
about him. — dr. john brown. 

1. How many paragraphs in this story? 

2. What is the topic of the paragraph ? 

3. Read the story again to see whether every sen- 
tence refers to that topic. 

226 



AN ORIGINAL NARRATIVE PARAGRAPH 227 

A paragraph in which all the sentences refer defi- 
nitely to the main topic is said to have unity, and unity 
is an essential quality of a good paragraph. 

4. What sentence suggests the paragraph topic, 
gives the key to the paragraph? Why is this sen- 
tence placed at the beginning? Where is the same 
idea repeated in a slightly different way? Why is it 
necessary to repeat it at the close? The sentence 
that suggests the paragraph topic is called the topic 
sentence, and is usually placed at the beginning of the 
paragraph in order to prepare the mind of the reader 
for what follows. It may, however, come later, even 
at the close ; or it may be the last sentence of the pre- 
ceding paragraph. Sometimes there is no topic sen- 
tence, the main thought being implied in the whole. 

This particular paragraph tells a story, and is 
therefore called a narrative paragraph. In any narra- 
tive the events should be related in the order of their 
occurrence. 

STUDY 188 
An Original Narrative Paragraph 

Write a narrative paragraph on each of two or 
more of the following topics, or on similar topics of 
your own choosing : 

1. How I Learned to Swim. 

2. My First Day at School. 

3. A Fortunate Escape. 

4. Preparing Breakfast. 



228 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

5. An Adventure with a Horse. 

6. Finding a Bird's Nest. 

When you have finished, examine your story to see 
w^hether you have used a paragraph sentence in a good 
place; preserved miify in your paragraph; related the 
events in the order in which they occurred; made the 
main thought clear. 

STUDY 189 
The Narrative Paragraph 

MR. BRIGHT's modesty 

John Bright and William E. Gladstone were two of the 
most eminent Englishmen of their day. Both were distin- 
guished in public life and were often opposed to each other in 
their views of particular questions. Consequently they were 
often thought of as in a certain sense rivals, particularly in 
the matter of influence over their fellow-men. The followers 
of Mr. Gladstone were wont to call him the greatest of living 
Englishmen. Accordingly the followers of Mr. Bright applied 
the same term to their leader. As a result of certain public 
acts of Mr. Gladstone, many people who really knew very little 
of the man spoke harshly of him. One day Mr. Bright hap- 
pened to overhear a nobleman's wife saying severe things of 
Gladstone. Turning to her, he asked her if her son had ever 
seen that gentleman. Much surprised, the lady answered, 
''No." 'Then. Madam," said Mr. Bright, "permit me to urge 
you to take him at once to see the greatest Englishman he is 
ever likely to look upon." 



LENGTH OF PARAGRAPH 229 

1. What is tlie central thought of this paragraph? Is it 
stated in the story, or only implied? Where? In other words, 
where is the "point" of the story? 

2. Read the story again to find whether the arrangement is 
good. Could the position of any of the sentences be changed 
without confusion ? 

3. Try to find the part that especially prepares the reader 
for the happy conclusion. Note the extreme delicacy of the 
rebuke. 

4. Retell the story, being careful to use variety in sentence 
beginnings; as, consequently, accordingly, as a result, turning 
to her. 

STUDY 190 
The Narrative Paragraph 

Find an anecdote of some historical character and 
write it in one good paragraph. 

STUDY 191 
Length of Paragraph, Connectives, and Emphasis 

The length of a paragraph depends entirely upon 
how much the writer wishes to say upon the topic. It 
may be long or short. Where a composition includes 
several paragraphs the more important topics will 
usually require the longer paragraphs. 

There are many words and phrases that may be 
used to show the connection between thoughts, and 
how the mind passes from one thought to another. 



230 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

One of the most common faults in the composition of 
young pupils is the frequent use of and. It seems hard 
for some girls and boys to learn that and is only one 
of many connectives. Careful study of some well 
written prose stories wnll show how skillful writers 
use a variety of connectives and sentence introduc- 
tions in order to avoid monotony and secure smooth- 
ness in the paragraph. 

Examine some good narrative paragraphs to see 
how many of the following connectives you can find: 
for, indeed, therefore, though, hence, yet, now, then, 
and, but, moreover, while, accordingly, on the con- 
trary, on the other side, after this, after a while, after- 
wards, likewise, presently, too, besides, thereupon, 
also, meanwhile, in the meantime, while this was going 
on, in addition to this. 

Sometimes the writer wishes to emphasize a par- 
ticular statement. This may be done by placing it at 
the beginning or at the close of a paragraph. 

In reporting conversations, it is usual to begin the 
remarks of each speaker with a new paragraph, unless 
the conversation is very brief. 



STUDY 192 

The Descriptive Paragraph 

He was about the middle height, but the thinness of his 
body and the length of his legs gave him the appearance 
of being much taller. The green coat had been a smart 



THE DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH 231 

dress garment in the days of swallow-tails, but had evi- 
dently in those times adorned a much shorter man than the 
stranger, for the soiled and faded sleeves scarcely reached 
to his wrists. It was buttoned close up to his chin, at the 
imminent hazard of spliting the back; while an old stock, 
without a vestige of shirt-collar, ornamented his neck. His 
scanty black trousers displayed here and there those shiny 
patches which bespeak long service, and were strapped very 
tight over a pair of patched and mended shoes, as if to 
conceal the dirty white stockings, which were nevertheless 
distinctly visible. Long black hair escaped in negligent 
waves from beneath each side of his old pinched up hat; 
and glimpses of his bare wrists might be observed between 
the tops of his gloves and the cuffs of his coat sleeves. His 
face was thin and haggard; but an indescribable air of jaunty 
impudence and perfect self-possession pervaded the whole 
man. From "Pickwick Papers." — ^dickens. 

1. State definitely the topic of this paragraph. 

2. Does every sentence clearly relate to the main 
topic, in other words, has the paragraph unity? 

3. Are the thoughts arranged in an orderly way? 

4. Point out the words and phrases that give form 
and color to the description. 

5. In the story from which this is taken, 'Tick- 
wick Papers," the following short paragraph immedi- 
ately precedes this : 

While his companions were busily engaged in proffering 
their thanks to their new acquaintance, Mr. Pickwick had 
leisure to examine his costume and appearance." 



232 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

Here we find the topic sentence of our paragraph 
is the last sentence in the preceding paragraph. In 
this position it loses none of its value as a paragraph 
sentence, and it connects what is to follow with what 
precedes. 

STUDY 193 
The Descriptive Paragraph 

Turn to page 216 and read the description of the 
person who appeared to Gluck. 

Find other good descriptions of the dress and per- 
sonal appearance of men and women, and read them 
in class. 

Write a paragraph describing some person whom 
you know or can imagine. Do not be afraid to write 
freely. When you have something written you can 
revise and improve it, if it does not suit you. You 
can do nothing with nothing. 

When you have finished the description, examine 
it as to the order of arrangement of the thoughts ; 
the unity of the paragraph, that is, the relation of 
each thought to the main topic; the position of the 
topic sentence. 

STUDY 194 
The Descriptive Paragraph 

Write a paragraph on each of two or more of the 
following topics : 

1. The Boy Who Succeeds. 

2. The Kind of Dog I Like. 



THE NARRATIVE-DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH 2Z2> 



3. My Favorite Horse. 

4. The Old Swimming Hole. 

5. Our School Garden. 

6. The Autumn Woods. 

STUDY 195 
The Narrative-Descriptive Paragraph 

THE CHICKADEE ^ 

A most bewitching bird is the fluffy little chickadee of 
kindergarten fame, so jolly, so debonair, so confiding withal. 
Watch him, hanging head downward from the tip of a twig 
so slender that it bends with his weight. With a comical 
air of business he hunts under each leaf, yet is instantly 
alert to your approach. Now he has spied you, and greets 
you with a title to which you may never have aspired. "A 
dee dee! a dee dee!'' he cries in mockery, until you laugh 
too, it is all so absurd. If you are patient he will come 
nearer and enter into quite a chat with you, provided you 
can reply in his o\vn language. 

IRENE GROSVENOR WTIEELOCK. 

1. Study this paragraph to find its purpose. Note how 
many things may be learned from it about the chickadee. 
Do you get a picture of the bird? If not, how is he described? 
Point out the words that help you to know the bird. What 
part is narrative? 

2. For describing characteristics, as distinguished from 
appearances, this method of telling of certain peculiar acts of 
a person or thing is both interesting and effective. 



234 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

3. Are the thoughts of the paragraph well arranged? Do 
they all relate to the main topic? Find the paragraph 
sentence. 

Write a narrative-descriptive paragraph about some bird 
or animal. 

STUDY 196 
Narrative-Description 

AN ORIGINAL PARAGRAPH 

After studying the paragraph on the chickadee, 
turn to page 214 and read the narrative-description 
of the three brothers. Find other similar descriptions 
and read them in class. 

Write an original narrative-descriptive paragraph 
about some person, or about some animal you have 
known. 

STUDY 197 
The Explanatory Paragraph 

THE MANUFACTURE OF PULP 

To make pulp or papier-mache, tear any waste paper into 
pieces not more than an inch square. Fill a bucket with 
these bits of paper and pour into it about a gallon of boiling 
water. Let the paper soak for five or six hours and then 
drain off the excess water. If now the mass of wet paper 
is beaten vigorously with the end of a stick, churned so that 
the bits of paper are made very small, the result will be, at 
the end of a few minutes, an excellent quality of paper pulp. 



II 



A PARAGRAPH FROM SUGGESTION 235 

THE MAKING OF MAPS 

To make relief maps, spread a layer of pulp about one- 
fourth of ail inch thick upon a board, in somewhat the shape 
of the map to be made; then with a small stick, or better still, 
a clay-modeling tool, press the edges of the layer of pulp into 
the correct outline ; work up the mountain ranges ; cut out 
the rivers and lakes, and set the board aside to dry. When 
thoroughly dry, the entire map can easily be removed from the 
modeling board and glued to a sheet of strawboard or heavy 
cardboard. ^ 

1. In these paragraphs notice the order of the ideas pre- 
sented: first the purpose, then step one, step two, and so on 
to the end. 

2. Are the directions all clear and definite? Is there a 
superfluous statement in either paragraph? 

Write a single paragraph explaining how to make one of 
the following: 

Plain Biscuit Maple Sugar A Bird House 

A Kind of Candy Apple Pie A Kite 

Tomato Soup Cottage Cheese A Raft 

STUDY 198 
A Paragraph from Suggestion 

Using one of the following as a topic sentence, 
write a paragraph as extended as you wish: 

1. There had been a drizzling rain all day. 

2. Prince was a good-natured dog, but he disliked tramps. 

3. In autumn Dame Nature attires herself in her richest 
colors. 



236 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

4. That day nothing went right; I seemed to have got 
out of bed on the wrong side. 

5. Akhough it was my first visit at my Aunt's home, 
when I saw the flowers about the house I knew I should 
like her. 



STUDY 199 

Variety and Smoothness 

The muskrat does not hibernate like some rodents. It is 
pretty active all winter. I noticed in my walk in December 
where they had made excursions of a few yards to an orchard 
for frozen apples. I saw mink tracks amid those of the 
muskrat along a little stream one day. I followed it up and 
came to blood and other marks of strife upon snow beside 
a stone w^all. I looked between the stones and found the 
carcass of the luckless rat, with its head and neck eaten 
away. The mink had made a meal of him. 

What is the paragraph topic? Find the topic 
sentence. 

Is there anything in the composition you do not 
like? With precisely the same ideas Mr. Burroughs 
made the following paragraph : 

The muskrat does not hibernate like some rodents, but 
is pretty active all winter. In December I noticed in my 
walks where they had made excursions of a few yards to an 
orchard for frozen apples. One day, along a little stream, 
I saw mink tracks amid those of the muskrat ; following it 
up, I presently came to blood and other marks of strife upon 
the snow beside a stone wall. Looking in between the stones. 



VARIETY AND SMOOTHNESS 237 

I found the carcass of the luckless rat, with head and neck 
eaten away. The mink had made a meal of him. 

BURROUGHS. 

Comparing these paragraphs, what is the chief 
difference you find? Would the frequent repetition 
of we, he, and, so, or any other word at the beginning 
of sentences Hkely be as monotonous as the repetition 

of ir 

It is not necessary to give much attention to this 
matter of connectives in the first writing of a com- 
position. The chief concern then is to get one's ideas 
expressed in some form, but expressed freely and 
fully. Better arrangement, greater accuracy, and 
more pleasing composition can be secured in revising 
and rewriting. 

STUDY 200 
Variety and Smoothness 

Criticise the following paragraph and, retaining 
the same ideas, rewrite it, improving the composition 
as much as you can. 

Adam Daulac was a young man of good family. He had 
come to the Colony three years before. He was then twenty- 
two years of age. He had held some military rank in France. 
In what rank it does not appear. He had been busy for some 
time among the young men of Montreal. He was inviting 
them to join him in the enterprise he meditated. Sixteen of 
them caught his spirit. They bound themselves by oath to 
accept no quarter. They gained Maisonneuve's consent. 
They made their wills. They confessed. They received the 
sacrament. 



238 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 201 
Variety and Smoothness 

Examine this paragraph. In what ways is it better 
or worse than the one in the preceding study? 
Rewrite it as well as you can. 

Wolfe set off down the river. . He had with him about one- 
half his men. They went in boats. They had neither sails 
nor oars. It was one o'clock in the morning. The day was 
the 13th of September. They were in search of the intrenched 
path. Wolfe had seen it a few days before. They intended 
to climb the heights by it. They found it. Some of the 
soldiers ascended by it. Others climbed the steep bank near it. 
They clung to the roots of the maple, the ash, and the spruce. 
These trees were growing on the side of the declivity. With a 
few volleys they dispersed the French picket. This picket 
was guarding the heights. This took place when they reached 
the summit. 



STUDY 202 
Division into Paragraphs 

Usually a composition of any considerable length 
has more than one important topic, hence more than 
one paragraph. Even a short description may have 
an introduction that presents the subject and pre- 
pares the mind of the reader for what is to follow. 
Or the thing to be described may be so complex that 
it is better to treat it in two or more sub-topics. 
For example, in describing a person, if the writer 



DIVISION INTO PARAGRAPHS 239 

has much to say, it will make his description clearer 
to divide the subject; as, physical appearance, dress, 
personal characteristics. 

But the simplest kind of composition is the short 
narrative, or story. Study the following: 

THE TAR-BABY 

The Rabbit, the Fox, and the Coon once lived close to- 
gether. The Fox had a fine melon-patch which he allowed 
no one to touch. One morning, as he was walking in his gar- 
den, he saw tracks, and knew that some one had been stealing 
his melons. Every day he saw fresh tracks, but though he 
watched and watched, he never could catch anyone. He told 
his trouble to the Coon, who said he was sure the Rabbit was 
the thief. So the Fox made a Httle tar man and set it in his 
garden-patch. 

When the moon rose the Rabbit stole out of his house and 
made for the melon patch. When he saw the Tar-Baby 
standing there he called out, ''Who's that standing there 
ready to steal the Fox's melons?" But the Tar-Baby said 
nothing. Then the Rabbit got angry, and hit the Tar-Baby, 
but his hand stuck fast in the tar. Then the Rabbit said, 
'Tet me go, or I will hit you with my other hand." But 
the Tar-Baby said nothing, and the other hand was soon 
fast to the tar. It was the same with first one foot, and then 
the other. When the Fox came along he found the Rabbit 
stuck fast to the Tar-Baby. He carried him to the Coon's 
house and said, "Here's the man who stole my melons. What 
shall I do to him?" 

The Coon took the Fox aside and said, ''Ask him whether 



240 STUDIES TN ENGLISH 

he'd rather be thrown into the fire or into the briar-patch, 
and whichever one he chooses throw him into the other." But 
the Rabbit overheard them, and when they gave him his 
choice he said, 'Tlease don't throw me into the briar-patch, 
I'll be scratched up. Throw me into the fire." So the Fox 
lifted him and threw him into the briars. Then the Rabbit 
kicked up his heels and laughed, and called back, ''Good- 
bye, Fox ! Farewell, Coon ! I was born and raised in the 
briars !" And with that he scampered off home. 

1. Into how many paragraphs is the story divided? What 
is the special use of the first part? of the second? of the third? 

State the topic of each paragraph. 

2. These divisions represent the three essential parts of a 
well told story, long or short ; the introduction, the develop- 
ment, and the conclusion or real ''point" of the story. 

3. Which of these paragraphs might be further divided? 
Why do you think the writer kept it together ? 

Using this story as a model, write one about any three 
animals you choose. 

STUDY 203 
Revision of Composition 

Here is a selection from the story of Rip Van 
Winkle. Arrange this in paragraphs and state the 
topic of each. After you have done this as carefully 
as possible, compare it with the original. Have you 
paragraphed as the author did? 

What seemed particularly odd to Rip was, that though 
these folks were evidently amusing themselves, yet they main- 



REVISION OF COMPOSITION 241 

tained the gravest faces, the most mysterious silence, and 
were, withal, the most melancholy party of pleasure he had 
ever witnessed. Nothing interrupted the stillness of the 
scene but the noise of the balls, which, whenever they were 
rolled, echoed along the mountains like rumbling peals of 
thunder. As Rip and his companion approached them, they 
suddenly desisted from their play, and stared at him with 
such fixed, statue-like gaze, and such strange, uncouth, lack- 
lustre countenances, that his heart turned within him, and 
his knees smote together. His companion now emptied the 
contents of the keg into large flagons, and made signs to 
him to wait upon the company. He obeyed with fear and 
trembling; they quaffed the liquor in profound silence, and 
then returned to their game. By degrees Rip's awe and appre- 
hension subsided. He even ventured, when ho eye was fixed 
upon him, to taste the beverage, which he found had much 
of the flavor of excellent Hollands. He was naturally a 
thirsty soul, and was soon tempted to repeat the draught. One 
taste provoked another; and he reiterated his visits to the 
flagon so often that at length his senses were overpowered, 
his eyes swam in his head, his head gradually declined, 
and he fell into a deep sleep. On waking, he found himself 
on the green knoll whence he had first seen the old man 
of the glen. He rubbed his eyes — it was a bright, sunny morn- 
ing. The birds were hopping and twittering among the 
bushes, and the eagle was wheeling aloft, and breasting the 
pure mountain breeze. ''Surely," thought Rip, 'T have not 
slept here all night." He recalled the occurrences before he 
fell asleep. The strange man with the keg of liquor — the 



242 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

mountain ravine — the wild retreat among the rocks — the 
woe-begone party at nine-pins — the flagon — ''Oh, that flagon! 
that wicked flagon !" thought Rip — "What excuse shall I make 
to Dame Van Winkle?" He looked round for his gun, but 
in place of the clean, well-oiled fowling-piece, he found an 
old firelock lying by him, the barrel incrusted with rust, the 
lock falling off, and the stock worm-eaten. He now suspected 
that the grave roisters of the mountain had put a trick upon 
him, and having dosed him with liquor, had robbed him of 
his gun. Wolf, too, had disappeared, but he might have 
strayed away after a squirrel or partridge. He whistled after 
him, and shouted his name, but all in vain ; the echoes 
repeated his whistle and shout, but no dog was to be seen. 

STUDY 204 
Revision of Composition 

The following selection is taken from "The Cricket 
on the Hearth" by Charles Dickens. Have you read 
the story? If not you would enjoy it. 

Group these sentences into paragraphs; state the 
topic of each. Punctuate the selection. If there are 
marks of punctuation depending upon grammatical 
constructions that you have not studied, your teacher 
will show you those before you begin work. If pos- 
sible, compare your work with a good edition of ''The 
Cricket on the Hearth.'' 

Her father went on one side of her while Dot remained 
tipon the other holding her hand. 

I know you all said Bertha better than you think. 



REVISION OF COMPOSITION 243 

But none so well as her. 

Not even you, father. 

There is nothing half so real and so true about me as 
she is. 

If I could be restored to sight this instant and not a word 
were spoken I could choose her from a crowd! 

My sister! 

Bertha my dear said Caleb I have something on my mind 
I want to tell you while we three are alone. 

Hear me kindly ! 

I have a confession to make to you my darling. 

A confession father? 

I have wandered from the truth and lost myself my child 
said Caleb with a pitiable expression in his bewildered face. 

I have wandered from the truth intending to be kind to 
you and have been cruel. 

She turned her wonder-stricken face towards him and 
repeated Cruel! 

He accuses himself too strongly Bertha said Dot. 

You'll say so presently. 

You'll be the first to tell him so. 

He cruel to me cried Bertha with a smile of incredulity. 

Not meaning it my child said Caleb. 

But I have been though I never suspected it till yesterday. 

My dear blind daughter hear me and forgive me. 

The world you live in heart of mine doesn't exist as I have 
represented it. 

The eyes you have trusted in have been false to you. 

She turned her wonder-stricken face towards him still but 
drew back and clung closer to her friend. 

Your road in life was rough my poor one said Caleb and I 
meant to smooth it for you. 



244 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

I have altered objects changed the characters of people 
invented many things that never have been to make you 
happier, 

I have had concealments from you put deceptions on you 
God forgive me and surrounded you with fancies. 

STUDY 205 
Revision of Composition 

Another interesting story written by Charles 
Dickens is called ''A Christmas Carol in Prose, Being 
a Ghost Story of Christmas." Have you read it? 
The following is taken from this story. Paragraph 
and punctuate it correctly. 

Your lip is trembling said the Ghost. 

And what is that upon your cheek? 

Scrooge muttered with an unusual catching in his voice 
that it was a pimple and begged the Ghost to lead him where 
he would. 

You recollect the way inquired the Spirit. 

Remember it cried Scrooge with fervor I could walk it 
blindfold. 

Strange to have forgotten it for so many years observed 
the Ghost. 



Let us go on. 



STUDY 206 
Description and Explanation 

THE SCHOOL GROUNDS 



Write two paragraphs about the school play- 
ground. 



VARIETY OF EXPRESSION 245 

1. Tell the things that satisfy you. 

2. Tell the things about the playground that you would 
wish to change. 

STUDY 207 

Explanation 

A BOOK I ENJOYED 

Write a paragraph telling why a book that you 
enjoyed interested you. 

STUDY 208 
Explanation 

A GAME I LIKE 

What outdoor game do you like best? Write a 
paragraph explaining a game that you enjoy. 

STUDY 209 
Form in Composition 

REPORT OF A CONVERSATION 

Write, without referring to the book, a conversa- 
tion in a story you have lately read. Be careful about 
the paragraphing and the punctuation. 

STUDY 210 
Variety in Expression 

REPORT OF A CONVERSATION 

Write a conversation that you lately heard. These 
words may help you to secure variety in connectives : 



246 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

said, replied, exclaimed, answered, asked, exhorted, reported, 
told, inquired, interrupted, remarked, questioned, explained, 
suggested. 



STUDY 211 
A Three Paragraph Story 

John Jones had been sent down town on an errand. 
He met Sam Smith who said, ^'I have caught a fox 
lip the ravine. Let's go to see it." 

Write a story of three paragraphs using the follow- 
ing topics for introduction, development, conclusion: 

1. John Jones' errand. 

2. The conversation between John and Sam. 

3. John's decision, with reason. 

The Eagle 

He clasps the crags with hooked hands; 

Close to the sun in lonely lands, 
Ring'd with the azure world, he stands. 

The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls ; 

He watches from his mountain walls, 
And like a thunderbolt he falls. 

TENNYSON. 



CHAPTER XV 



THE SENTENCE 

STUDY 212 
Essentials of a Good Sentence 

Just as the large unit of composition is the para- 
graph, so the unit of the paragraph is the sentence. 

Review Studies 1 and 147. What is a sentence? 
What are the essential parts of a sentence? In what 
respect must the subject and the predicate of a sen- 
tence agree? Which part determines the number of 
the other? 

The qualities of a good sentence are: 

1. Clearness. It is much more difficult to write 
than to speak exactly what we mean, because in 
speech we have tone of voice, inflection, facial expres- 
sion, and gesture to help the words. Clearness 
depends upon the use of words according to their true 
meaning, and upon their proper arrangement in the 
sentence. 

When a person says, 'T do not feel good to-day," 
the sentence implies that he feels had, that is, has a 
conscious sense of being a sinner. When one says, 
*'I feel badly'' the true meaning of the sentence is, 
"My sense of touch is defective." These are simple 

247 



248 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

examples of the wrong use of words. What is really 
meant in the first case is, "I do not feel well to-day ;" 
and in the second, ''I feel grieved/' 

On the other hand, in the sentence, "He thought 
he was going to die several times," the lack of clear- 
ness is due to the position of "several times." 

2. Unity. The parts of the sentence should refer 
to the same general notion. To say, 'The man was 
bow-legged and honorable," is absurd, because there 
is no connection between crooked legs and a sense of 
honor. 

3. Smoothness. The arrangement of the words 
and phrases in a sentence should be such that it reads 
easily, smoothly. The misplacing of words and 
phrases, and the frequent use of parentheses, are the 
most common fault in this respect. 

4. Strength. Usually the most forcible sentences 
are short ones composed of simple, well chosen words. 
The emphasis of a particular word is secured by 
placing it at the beginning or the close of the 
sentence. 

STUDY 213 
Combining Sentences 

Supply the right connectives in the following 
blanks : 

1. It was a beautiful girdle, she clasped it about 

her waist. 



I 



CLEARNESS 249 

2. Now these people of Libya were heathen, in Cap- 

padocia, not far away, was a Christian named George, 

this George was a young man of noble bearing. 

3. The people began to flee when they saw the dread 
beast, George stayed them. 

4. The proud king knew the duke, the duke saw only 

a bruised and beaten madman. 

5. There was considerable tumult of whispers in her ear, 
else it was her curiosity that whispered. 

6. But nothing went right; was he nearly so happy 

as on other days. 

STUDY 214 
Clearness 
To make the meaning clear, where will you place: 

L ''Small," in "Found, a lady's purse." 

2. "Lively," in "Here is a child's song." 

3. "After he was crowned emperor," in "One night he 
lay awake and thought about himself." 

4. "Thanking the old man of the sea, and begging his 
pardon for having squeezed him so roughly," in "The hero 
resumed his journey." 

5. "When this old world was in its tender infancy," "who 
never had either father or mother," "that he might not be 
lonely," in "Long, long ago, there was a child-, named 
Epimetheus; and another child, fatherless and motherless like 
himself, was sent from a far country, to live with him and 
be his play-fellow." 



250 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

Reconstruct each of the following sentences so that 
the meaning will be clear : 

6. I have not heard from one of my brothers this year. 

7. The people will do more for me than you. 

8. She has wanted to visit you for a long time. 

9. One should not drink lake water without being boiled. 
10. The old man came in and sat down upon my invitation. 

' STUDY 215 
Emphasis 

In the following sentences ensure emphasis of the 
italicized words by putting them in the best place : 

1. He turned toward the Great Stone Face to console 
himself. 

2. They dressed her in her richest apparel. 

3. The pon^y came running down the street. 

4. Thomas came regularly day after day. 

5. The boy all bedraggled stood in the doorway. 

6. Of all my sons I knew James to be the shrewdest. 

7. Where will you go when cold zveather comes and food 
is scarce? 

STUDY 216 
Combining Sentences 

If sentences are of the same length and alike in 
form, the composition has a monotonous effect. 
Therefore, the writer must try to have variety in the 



COMBINING SENTENCES 251 

form and in the length of the sentences. One of the 
best ways to gain power to do this is to study the 
sentences in the stories you are reading. Find if you 
can how authors who knew very much about this 
power combined their sentences, — such writers as, 
Nathaniel Hawthorne, Washington Irving, Robert 
Louis Stevenson, Louisa M. Alcott, and Mary Mapes 
Dodge. 

In the following, combine the sentences as seems 
best to you. Do not use ''and" very often, but change 
whole sentences into modifying phrases or clauses. 
To assist you, numbers have been put in, showing 
where the author began his sentences. When you 
have done your best, compare, with your teacher's 
aid, your copy with the paragraph as the author wrote 
it. This is the beginning of what story ? Who wrote it ? 

''Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson must remem- 
ber the Kaatskill Alountains. 2. They are a dismembered 
branch of the great Appalachian family. They are seen away 
to the west of the river. They swell to a noble height. They 
lord it over the surrounding country. 3. Every change of 
season produces some change in the magical hues and shapes 
of these mountains. Every change of weather and every hour 
of the day produces some change in the magical hues and 
shapes of these mountains. They are regarded by all the 
good wives, far and near, as perfect barometers. 4. The 
weather is fair and settled. They are clothed in blue and 
purple. They print their bold outlines on the clear evening 
sky. Sometimes the rest of the landscape is cloudless. They 



252 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

will gather a hood of gray vapors about their summits. This, 
in the last rays of the setting sun, will glow and light up like 
a crown of glory. 



STUDY 217 
Combining Sentences 

This extract is taken from what story ? Who wrote 
it? Follow the directions for Study 216. 

It was a happy lot for children to grow up to manhood 
or womanhood with the Great Stone Face before their eyes. 
All the features were noble. The expression was at once 
grand and sweet, as if it were the glow of a vast, warm 
heart. This heart embraced all mankind in its affections. 
This heart had room for more. 2. It was an education only 
to look at it. 3. According to the belief of many people, 
the valley owed much of its fertility to this benign aspect. 
This benign aspect was continually beaming over it. This 
benign aspect was continually illuminating the clouds. This 
benign aspect was continually infusing its tenderness into 
the sunshine. 4. As we began with saying, a mother and her 
little boy sat at their cottage-door. They wQre gazing at the 
Great Stone Face. They were talking about the Great Stone 
Face. 5. The child's name was Ernest. 6. "Mother," said 
he. The Titanic visage smiled on him. "I wish that it could 
speak. It looks so very kindly. Its voice must needs be 
pleasant. 7. If I were to see a man with such a face, I 
should love him dearly." 



COMBINING SENTENCES 253 

STUDY 218 
Combining Sentences 

This extract is taken from what story ? Who wrote 
it? Follow the directions for Study 216. 

He was a kind and thankful creature. His heart dilated 
in proportion as his skin was filled with good cheer. His 
spirits rose with eating. Some men's spirits rise with drink. 
2. He could not help, too, rolling his large eyes round him 
as he ate. He chuckled with the possibility that he might 
one day be lord of all this scene of almost unimaginable lux- 
ury and splendor. 3. Then, he thought, how soon he'd turn 
his back upon the old school-house. He'd snap his fingers 
in the face of Hans Van Ripper. He'd snap his fingers in 
the face of every other niggardly patron. He'd kick any 
itinerant pedagogue out of doors that should dare to call 
him comrade ! 

4. Old Baltus Van Tassel moved about among his guests 
with a face dilated with content and good humor. His face 
was round and jolly as the harvest moon. 5. His hospitable 
attentions were brief. His hospitable attentions were expres- 
sive. These attentions were confined to a shake of the hand, 
a slap on the shoulder, a loud laugh, and a pressing invitation 
to "fall to and help themselves." 

6. And now the sound of music from the common room, 
or hall, summoned to the dance. 7. The musician was an 
old gray-headed negro. This negro had been the itinerant 
orchestra of the neighborhood for more than half a century. 
8. His instrument was old and battered. He was old and 



254 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

battered. 9. The greater part of the time he scraped away 
on two or three strings. He accompanied every movement of 
the bow with a motion of the head. He bowed almost to the 
ground. He stamped with his foot whenever a fresh couple 
were to start. 

STUDY 219 
Variety in Expression 

Read the paragraph, Study 252, from ''Arthur 
Bonnicastle." Notice the variety in the verbs; e. g., 
can give, climbed, rode, paused, caught sight, sazu, 
wondered, met, looked, dashed, scampered, sprang, 
sailed, took, floated. 

Write about what you saw on a recent journey, 
drive, or walk. Think clearly about what you will 
tell, before you begin to write. 

STUDY 220 
Descriptive-Narrative 

You have recently attended a circus or some other 
form of entertainment; write three paragraphs tell- 
ing about it. Decide first upon the paragraph topics. 

STUDY 221 
Descriptive-Narrative 

Write four paragraphs about a recent Saturday; 
tell what pleasures you enjoyed, what duties you had 
to perform. 



CHAPTER XVI 



WORDS 

STUDY 222 
The Meaning of Words 

In order to tell or write precisely what we mean, 
it is necessary to be exceedingly careful in the use 
of words. Abraham Lincoln was a master of clear, 
forceful English. Read what he has said about his 
education in the use of language. 

HOW LINCOLN LEARNED TO EXPRESS HIMSELF 

'That suggests, I\Ir. Lincoln, an inquiry which has several 
times been upon my lips during this conversation. I Vv^ant 
very much to know how you got this unusual power of 'put- 
ting things.' It must have been a matter of education. No 
man has it by nature alone. What has your education been?" 

''Well, as to education, the newspapers are correct. I never 
went to school more than six months in my life. But, as 
you say, this must be a product of culture in some form. I 
have been putting the question you ask me to myself while 
you have been talking. I say this, that among my earliest 
recollections, I remember how, when a mere child, I used to 
get irritated when anybody talked to me in a way I could not 
understand. I don't think I ever got angry at anything else 
in my life. But that always disturbed my temper, and has 

255 



256 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

ever since. I can remember going to my little bedroom, after 
hearing the neighbors talk of an evening with my father, 
and spending no small part of the night walking up and down, 
and trying to make out what was the exact meaffing of some of 
their, to me, dark sayings. I could not sleep, though I often 
tried to, when I got on such a hunt after an idea, until I had 
caught it ; and when I thought I had got it, I was not satisfied 
until I had repeated it over and over, until I had put it in lan- 
guage plain enough, as I thought, for any boy I knew to com- 
prehend. This was a kind of passion with me, and it has stuck 
by me, for I am never easy now, when I am handling a 
thought, till I have bounded it north and bounded it south 
and bounded it east and bounded it west. Perhaps that 
accounts for the characteristic you observe in my speeches, 
though I never put the two things together before." 

REV. J. p. GULLIVER. 

Study this story until you can tell as clearly as Lincoln 
did how he acquired his unusual power of "putting things." 

STUDY 223 
Choice of Words 

Which of the words in parentheses is to be pre- 
ferred? Why? 

L This sauce tastes (strongly, strong) of cloves. 

2. We felt very (bad, badly, sorry) to hear of your mis- 
fortune. 

3. Sit (quiet, quietly) in your seats a little longer. 

4. They were not brought up (like, as) you were. 

5. I (hate, dislike) cold, wet weather. 



PLURALS AND POSSESSIVES 257 

6. I used to (get, become) angry at any opposition. 

7. Each of the pupils (was, were) allowed another trial. 

8. Neither of the boys (was, were) to blame. 

9. Nobody but the speakers (were, was) allowed on the 
platform. 

10. Skill, as well as industry, (are, is) necessary to suc- 
cess. 

11. (Was, were) you ever on the ocean? 

12. We have no doubt (but. that) he will succeed. 

STUDY 224 
Plurals and Possessives 

Justify the form of each of the italicized words. 
See Study 52. 

1. Take two cupfuls of flour and three tablespoonfuls of 
sugar. 

2. The cashier must account for all moneys received. 

3. Mrs. A's three sons-in-law are all doing well. 

4. Special sale of children's, men's, and "^ladies' shoes. 

5. Six months' interest was due on the note. 

6. The boy took up his two hands full of nuts. 

7. The trough holds five pailfuls of milk. 

8. A man carries two pails full at a time. 

9. We could not prevent the hoy's falling. 

10. No one thought of Ethel's winning the prize. 

11. Victoria of England's reign was long.** 

12. Who wants to give two days' work for one day's pay? 

13. It was somebody else's fault, not Alice's. 

*WIiat word should be used instead of ladies'? 
**Express the thought more smoothly. 



258 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

Distinguish between : — 

14. Take up two (handsful, handfuls) of seeds. 

15. The new (cloths, clothes) are in quiet colors. 

16. Five (shot, shots) were fired. 

17. How many (peas, pease) have you? 

18. My (brothers, brethren) will help me, if I need it. 

STUDY 225 
Synonyms 

To repeat a word for emphasis or for clearness is 
wise, but too often the inexperienced writer repeats 
words through carelessness. If a person finds that 
he has used the same word twice or oftener within a 
few lines, he would do well to substitute a synonym, 
or search for another word which will express his 
thought as well. 

A synonym is one of two or more words that have 
the same or nearly the same meaning. Business, occu- 
pation, employment, engagement, avocation are syn- 
onyms. Yet even in words so nearly alike in mean- 
ing there are differences. These differences should 
be known and observed in the use of w^ords. 

Consult the dictionary, watch for these words in 
conversation or in reading, distinguish between their 
meanings, and use them in sentences: 

1. alarm, terror, fright, consternation. 

2. thankfulness, gratitude. 

3. character, reputation. 



THE RIGHT USE OF PRONOUNS 259 



4. 


advertise, publish. 


5. 


advantage, profit. 


6. 


admittance, admission. 


7. 


people, persons. 




STUDY 226 




The Use of Words 



Select the right word of the two in parentheses in 
the following sentences, and justify your selection. 
First learn the exact meaning of may, can, lay, lie, 
sit, and set. See Study 176 . 

1. (Can, may) I leave the room? 

2. He (lay, laid) on the lawn for an hour, reading. 

3. (Set, sit) the jar on the floor. 

4. We have (lain, laid) down so long that we are lazy. 

5. (May, can) I borrow your book? 

6. This hen persists in (sitting, setting). 

7. (Set, sit) down and make yourself comfortable. 

8. (Lay, lie) down and rest awhile. 

9. Your hat and coat have (laid, lain) on the chair all 
the afternoon. 

10. (Can, may) we have some sort of game to-day? 

STUDY 227 
The Right Use of Pronouns 

Copy the following sentences, using the correct 
pronoun. Be prepared to explain your choice. See 
Study 71. 



260 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

1. Employer and employee should understand (each 
other, one another). 

2. Pupils soon become acquainted with (each other, one 
another). 

3. (Neither, none) of the three methods is correct. 

4. Pitt was the greatest statesman (which, that) the 
century produced. 

5. I have several books, (either, any) of which will help 
you. 

6. James is taller than (I, me). 

7. Please wait for Tom and (I, me). 

8. Will you go with Alabel and (me, I)? 

9. Mother allowed Will and (I, me) to go. 

10. They will blame you or (I, me). 

11. Father thought it was (I, me). 

12. Louise knew it to be (me, I). 

13. Some men are wiser than (we, us). 

14. It was (we, us) whom you saw. 

15. (We, us) girls are going to the picnic. 

16. His brother is darker than (him, he). 

17. If I were (her, she) I would try again. 

18. The President shook hands with all, (he, him) among 
the rest. 

19. None are so blind as (they, them) that will not see. 

20. I know it to have been (they, them). 

STUDY 228 
Synonyms 

Write the following words in a column, and oppo- 
site each write as many words as you can of similar 



CORRECT USE OF ADJ5:CTIVES 261 

meaning. Then compose or quote sentences that 



show the special use of each word. 




honor pohte 


selfish 


fearless just 


ignorant 


gentle admire 


lively 



STUDY 229 
The Right Use of Words 
Study the following: 

1. Lend is a verb, never a noun, meaning to allow the use 
of ; as, Can you lend me an umbrella ? 

2. Loan is a noun applied to the thing lent or borrowed ; 
as, May I have a small loan? 

3. Either and neither are applied to one of two things or 
groups ; as, Either the boys or girls may help me. Neither 
Mabel nor Edith is to blame. 

4. Rise means to move upward. 

5. Raise means to lift upward. 

Discuss in class the meaning of each of these words, 
then compose at least two sentences that exemplify 
the use of each. 

STUDY 230 
Correct Use of Adjectives 

Which of the alternative words is correct? Why? 
Mark the sentences in vvhich you are likely to use 
the incorrect word. 



262 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

1. Do you like (those, that) sort of apple? 

2. Which is the (heaviest, heavier) hers or mine? 

3. The fields present (a, an) uniform appearance. 

4. It was the (cowardliest, most cowardly) act I ever 
saw. 

5. There could not have been (less, fewer) than fifty 
persons present. 

6. I have nothing (farther, further) to say to you at 
present. 

7. A soldier stood on (each, either) side of the door. Both 
looked angry and threatening. 

Distinguish : 

8. A black and (white, a white) shawl. 

9. The ninth and (the last, last) volume. 

10. They gave him the bread and (the milk, milk). 

11. Wanted, a cook and (a housemaid, housemaid). 

12. Bring me (the, a) finished drawing. 

Correct the following, giving your reason for each 
change : 

13. What kind of a book do you like best? 

14. The widow is entitled to the third of the property. 

15. It isn't safe to trust those kind of persons. 

16. Ethel is a better writer than any pupil in her class. 

17. The farmer sold not less than ninety sheep. 

18. The opossum is a kind of a pig. 



He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty ; and he 
that ruleth his own spirit than he that taketh a city. 

PROVERT^S. 



THE USE OF WORDS 263 

STUDY 231 
The Use of Words 

FORMS OF \'ERBS 

Select the correct word from the two in parenthe- 
ses. Give reason for your choice. See Study 176. 

1. May I (sit, set) there? 

2. May I (set, sit) the box there? 

3. I (lay, laid) awake a long time last night. 

4. They (lie, lay) the book there each morning. 

5. We (seen, saw) an elephant in the circus. 

6. The older pupils (sit, set) us a good example. 

7. She (teaches, learns) us our lessons. 

8. The boy was so frightened he (run, ran) like a deer. 

9. Last night the others (come, came) more promptly. 
10. Did you (lie, lay) awake long? 

Rewrite the above sentences putting each verb into the 
present perfect tense; that is, use have or has with each verb. 

STUDY 232 
The Use of Words 

FORMS OF VERBS 

Rewrite these sentences changing the verbs to the 
present perfect tense ; that is, using have or has. 

1. We go to the woods each spring. 

2. They sit in the sun. 

3. The children began the work promptly. 

4. Elizabeth rang the school bell. 



264 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

5. Margaret writes well. 

6. The chorus sang beautifully. 

7. The pine trees grow very tall in Northern Michigan. 

8. The bell rang loud and clear. 

STUDY 233 
The Use of Words 

SYNONYMS 

Distinguish the difference in meaning in the adjec- 
tives in each of these groups. Use each correctly in 
a sentence. 

1. different, unlike. 

2. enough, sufficient. 

3. idle, lazy, indolent. 

4. dutiful, obedient, respectful. 

5. noble, grand. 

6. great, large, big. 

STUDY 234 
The Use of Words 

SYNONYMS 

Follow the directions for the preceding study. 

1. abrupt, rugged, rough. 

2. human, humane. 

3. active, diligent, industrious, laborious. 

4. alone, solitary, lonely. 

5. beautiful, fine, handsome, pretty. 

6. impertinent, rude, saucy. 



THE USE OF WORDS 265 

STUDY 235 

The Use of Words 

Select the correct word of those in parentheses, and 
give the meaning of the sentence : 

1. Did she (learn, teach) you the song? 

2. He (accepted, excepted) the privilege as a favor. 

3. Whitney (discovered, invented) the cotton gin. 

4. Roentgen (discovered, invented) the ^-ray. 

5. The neighbors (allow, think, guess) that he is very 
thrifty. 

6. The damp v^eather (affected, effected) his health. 

7. Can he (affect, effect) an escape from this prison? 

8. I (expect, suppose) you are surprised to see me. 

STUDY 236 
The Use of Words 

Study the meaning of the alternative words. Then 
copy the sentences, retaining only the correct words, 
and prepare to explain the meaning of each sentence. 

1. The man is (fixing, mending) my shoe. 

2. I (love, like) to ride rapidly. 

3. (Lear\^e, let) the vase stand w^here it is. 

4. We (stopped, stayed) at the hotel over night. 

5. The (party, person) whom you wish to see has left 
town. 

6. It was (an unpleasant, a horrid) thing to do. 

7. John is (very, awfully) smart. 

8. We cannot go (unless, except) you go. 



266 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 237 
The Use of Words 

Copy the following sentences, selecting the cor- 
rect word of the alternatives, and then explain the 
meaning of each sentence : 

1. We cannot go (unless, without) you go. 

2. The campus of our school is a (nice, pleasant, charm- 
ing) place. 

3. It was the (strangest, funniest) thing that I lost that 
dollar. 

4. The children are (real, very, really) happy. 

5. The girls passed (in, into) the store to inquire for the 
book. 

6. This is the same picture (as, that) we saw yesterday. 

7. You (aggravate, annoy) me by your fooling. 

8. There is no doubt (but, that) he is innocent. 

STUDY 238 
Confusion of Adjectives and Adverbs 

Which one of the alternative words is correct? 
Explain. 

1. The boys seemed (really, real) glad to see me. 

2. The rose smells (sw^eet, sweetly). 

3. His clothes smell (strong, strongly) of the stable. 

4. Drivers must go (slow, slowly) over the bridge. 

5. The man who caused the fatal accident seemed to feel 
very (bad, badly).* 

*Find a better expression of the idea. 



CHOICE OF WORDS 267 

6. (Most, almost) every man in the village owns his 
home. 

7. That can he done (easy, easily) enough. 

8. The tobacco smelt (strong, strongly). 

9. The room smelt (strong, strongly) of tobacco. 

10. Have you the work (near, nearly) finished? 

11. The ball used is about (that, so) big. 

12. The man was (terribly, terrible) angry when he came 
back and saw us. ' 

13. The remark must sound (harsh, harshly) to you. 

14. That is (easier, more easily) said than done. 

15. The principal spoke quite (decided, decidedly) on that 
point. 

Note. — How many of these expressions are you sure 3'ou use cor- 
rectly ? 

STUDY 239 
Choice of Words 

A MEMORY QUOTATION 

In the following selection, taken from ''The Cricket 
On the Hearth" by Charles Dickens, study carefully 
the choice of words : 

It's a dark night, sang the kettle, and the rotten leaves are 
lying by the way; and, above, all is mist and darkness, and, 
below, all is mire and clay ; and there's only one relief in all 
the sad and murky air ; and I don't know that it is one for it's 
nothing but a glare of deep and angry crimson, where the sun 
and wind together set a brand upon the clouds for being 
guilty of such weather; and the widest open country is a 



268 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

long dull streak of black; and there's hoar-frost on the finger- 
post, and thaw upon the track; and the ice it isn't water, and 
the water isn't free; and you couldn't say that anything is 
what it ought to be ; but he's coming, coming, coming ! 

Do you see and feel what the author tries to tell ? 

What enables you to do so? 

What is the effect upon the impression you get, if 
you change important words in the extract? 

When you read this aloud of what does it remind 
you? Memorize the selection. 

STUDY 240 
Choice of Words 

A MEMORY QUOTATION 

The following is part of ''The Brook" by Alfred 
Tennyson : 

I chatter over stony ways, 

In little sharps and trebles, 
I bubble into eddying bays, 

I babble on the pebbles. 

With many a curve my banks I fret 

By many a field and fallow, 
And many a fairy foreland set 
With willow-weed and mallow. 

I chatter, chatter, as I flow 

To join the brimming river. 
For men may come and men may go, 

But I go on forever. 



CHOICE OF WORDS 269 



I steal by lawns and grassy plots, 

I slide by hazel covers ; 
I move the sweet forget-me-nots 

That grow for happy lovers. 

I slip, I slide, I gloom, I glance. 

Among my skimming swallows; 
I make the netted sunbeam dance 

Against my sandy shallows ; ^ 

I murmur under moon and stars 

In brambly wildernesses ; 
I linger by my shingly bars ; 

I loiter round my cresses; 

And out again I curve and flow 

To join the brimming river, 
For men may come and men may go. 

But I go on forever. 

Why did the poet use the word chatter, line 1, instead of 
clatter, or some other word? Why could not the words bubble 
and babble, lines 3 and 4, be exchanged? Why are fret, line 
5, and brimming, line 10, particularly appropriate words? 
What special idea does the word steal, line 13, give you? slide, 
line 14? Why not say shake instead of move, line 15? 

What is the difference in the meaning between slip, slide ; 
gloom, glance, line 17? What are skimming, swallows? Why 
is the sunbeam netted? Why are the shallows sandy? What 
picture does "murmur under moon and stars" give you? What 
do these words make you hear? What is the difference in 
meaning between linger and loiter, lines 23 and 24? Memorize 
this selection. 



270 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 241 
Choice of Words 

Substitute an appropriate word for each italicized 
word in the following: 

1. We are having such nice weather. 

2. It was real pleasant yesterday. 

3. I was aivfully pleased. 

4. She hates to play ball. 

5. I just love candy. 

6. The ride was perfectly lovely. 

7. He was mighty smart to do that. 

8. He was terribly afraid the teacher would ask him to 
explain the problem. 

9. It don't do no good to become discouraged. 
10. He didn't do it neither. 

Memorize 

HOW BEAUTIFUL IS NIGHT 

A dewy freshness fills the silent air; 

Nor mist obscures ; nor cloud, nor speck, nor stain 

Breaks the serene of heaven. 
In full-orbed glory, yonder moon divine 
Rolls through the dark blue depths; 

Beneath her steady ray 

The desert circle spreads 
Like the round ocean, girdled with the sky. 



How beautiful is night! 



SOUTHEY. 



CHAPTER XVII 



MEMORY SELECTIONS* 

STUDY 242 
New Every Morning 

Every day is a fresh beginning, 

Every morn is the world made new. ^ 

You who are weary of sorrow and sinning, 

Here is a beautiful hope for you, — 
A hope for me and a hope for you. 

All the past things are past and over ; 

The tasks are done and the tears are shed. 
Yesterday's errors let yesterday cover ; 

Yesterday's wounds, which smarted and bled, 
Are healed with the healing which night has shed. 

Yesterday now is a part of forever. 

Bound up in a sheaf, which God holds tight, 

With glad days, and sad days, and bad days, which never 
Shall visit us more with their bloom and their blight. 

Their fulness of sunshine or sorrowful nisfht. 



"fe" 



Let them go, since we cannot relive them, 

Cannot undo and cannot atone; 
God in his mercy receive, forgive them ! 

Only the new days are our own; 
To-day is ours, and to-day alone. 

*For convenience these selections are grouped here, but they should 
not be studied consecutively. Before being memorized they should be 
thoroughly studied as literature. See also pages 120, 121, 203, 204. 

271 



272 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

Here are skies all burnished brightly, 

Here is the spent earth all reborn, 
Here are the tired limbs springing lightly 

To face the sun and to share with the morn 
In the chrism of dew and the cool of dawn. 

Every day is a fresh beginning; 

Listen, my soul, to the glad refrain, 
And, spite of old sorrow and older sinning, 

And puzzles forecasted and possible pain, 
Take heart with the day, and begin again. 

SUSAN COOLIDGE. 

STUDY 243 

A Thanksgiving 

For flowers that bloom about our feet. 
For tender grass so fresh, so sweet; 
For song of bird and hum of bee, 
For all things fair we hear or see; 
Father in heaven, we thank Thee. 

For blue of stream and blue of sky. 
For pleasant shade of branches high ; 
For fragrant air and cooling breeze. 
For beauty of the blooming trees; 

Father in heaven, we thank Thee. 

EMERSON. 

STUDY 244 
The Dedication of Gettysburg Cemetery 

Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth 
upon this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and 
dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. 



THE TWENTY-THIRD PSALM 273 

Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that 
nation, or any nation, so conceived and so dedicated, can long 
endure. 

We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We are met 
to dedicate a portion of it as the final resting-place of those 
who have given their lives that that nation might live. It is 
altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But, in 
a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we 
cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, 
who struggled here, have consecrated it far beypnd our power 
to add or to detract. The world will little note or long remem- 
ber what we say here, but it can never forget what they did 
here. 

It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the 
unfinished work they have thus far so nobly carried on. It is 
rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining 
before us, that from these honored dead we take increased 
devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last full 
measure of devotion ; that the nation shall, under God, have a 
new birth of freedom ; and that government of the people, by 
the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. 

ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 

STUDY 245 
The Twenty-third Psalm 

The Lord is my shepherd; I shall not want. 

He maketh me to lie down in green pastures : he leadeth me 
beside the still waters. 

He restoreth my soul : he leadeth me in the paths of right- 
eousness for his name's sake. 

Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of 
death, I will fear no evil: for thou art with me; thy rod and 
thy staff they comfort me. 



274 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

Thou prepares! a table before me in the presence of mine 
enemies : thou anointest my head with oil ; my cup runneth 
over. 

Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days 
of my life : and I will dwell in the house of the Lord forever. 

STUDY 246 

Mercy 

The quahty of mercy is not strain'd : 

It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven 

Upon the place beneath; it is twice blest; 

It blesseth him that gives and him that takes : 

'Tis mightiest in the mightiest: it becomes 

The throned monarch better than his crown ; 

His sceptre shows the force of temporal power, 

The attribute to awe and majesty, 

Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings; 

But mercy is above this sceptred sway; 

It is enthroned in the hearts of kings. 

It is an attribute to God himself ; 

And earthly power doth then show likest God's 

When mercy seasons justice. 

From "The Merchant of Venice" — Shakespeare. 

STUDY 247 

The First Psalm 

Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the 
ungodly, nor standeth in the way of sinners, nor sitteth in the 
seat of the scornful. 



THE FIRST PSALM 275 

But his delight is in the law of the Lord; and in his law 
doth he meditate day and night. 

And he shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water, 
that bringeth forth his fruit in his season ; his leaf also shall 
not wither; and whatsoever he doeth shall prosper. 

The ungodly are not so: but are hke the chaff which the 
wind driveth away. 

Therefore the ungodly shall not stand in the judgment, 
nor sinners in the congregation of the righteous. 

For the Lord knoweth the way of the righteous : but the 
way of the ungodly shall perish. 



Washington and Lincoln 

Washington, though in some ways an even greater man 
than Lincoln, did not have Lincoln's wonderful gift of expres- 
sion — that gift which makes certain speeches of the rail- 
splitter from Illinois read like the inspired utterances of the 
great Hebrew seers and prophe.ts. But he had all of Lin- 
coln's sound common sense, farsightedness, and devotion to 
a lofty ideal. Like Lincoln he sought after the noblest objects, 
and like Lincoln he sought after them by thoroughly prac- 
tical methods. These two greatest Americans can fairly be 
called the best among the great men of the world, and the 
greatest among the good men of the world. Each showed 
in actual practice his capacity to secure, under our system, 
the priceless union of individual liberty with governmental 
strength. Each was free from the vices of the demagogue. 

THEODORE ROOSEVELT. 



CHAPTER- XVIII 



FORM IN COMPOSITION 

STUDY 248 
Rules for the Use of Capital Letters 
A capital letter should be used : 

1. At the beginning of every sentence. 
A little neglect may breed great mischief. 

2. To begin every line of poetry. 

Be good, sweet maid, and let who will be clever; 

Do noble things, not dream them all day long ; 
And so make life, death, and that vast forever 

One grand, sweet song. — charles kingsley. 

3. As the first letter of every proper name and 
every word derived from a proper name. 

Governor Winthrop, Boston. 

It was the blue of an Italian sky. 

4. As the first letter of the names of the days of 
the week and the months of the year. 

She left us Thursday morning, June the tenth. 

5. In the word "V standing for the person speak- 
ing, the word ''O" or to begin the word ''Oh" used 
in exclamation. 

O the sight ! I cannot look again. 
276 



RULES FOR PUNCTUATION 277 

6. For every title attached to a person's name. 
Mr. John Smith, County Attorney. 

7. For all initials or abbreviations if the whole 
v^ords should begin with capitals: 

O. W. Holmes, M. A., LL. D. 

8. To begin every name of, and every pronoun 
referring to the Deity. 

O Father! grant Thy love divine 

To make these mystic temples Thine! 

9. To begin the first word and every important 
word in the title of a book, poem, story, newspaper 
and the like. 

The Youth's Companion, Alice in Wonderland. 

10. To begin the first word of every direct 
quotation. 

So she said to him, ''Come, come, this will not do." 

STUDY 249 
Rules for Punctuation 

THE PERIOD 

A period should be used after : 

1. Every statement, command, or wish, except 
when exclamatory. 

Daffydowndilly was delighted with the sweet smell 
of the new-mown grass. 

2. Every abbreviation, or initial. 

Adj., adv., Jan., Mon. ; J. A. Thomas, C. E. 



278 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

THE SEMICOLON 

A semicolon should be used: 

1. To indicate a marked division in a compound 
sentence. 

The stranger cast his eyes where Daffydowndilly 
pointed his finger; and he saw an elderly man, with a 
carpenter's rule and compasses in his hand. 

2. To separate the members of a series of phrases 
or clauses when these have smaller divisions marked 
by commas. 

Nevertheless, Mr. Toil had a severe and ugly coun- 
tenance, especially for such little boys or big men as 
were inclined to be idle ; his voice, too, was harsh ; and 
all his ways and customs seemed very disagreeable to 
our friend Daffydowndilly. 

3. To precede "as," "viz.," "e. g.," "i. e.," etc. 
Names ending in ''y" preceded by a consonant change 
''y" to "i" and add ''es" ; as, ladies, liHes, daisies. 

THE COLON 

A colon is used to show a greater division of the sen- 
tence than the semicolon ; after a formal saluta- 
tion ; and preceding a formal summary. 
The conditions affecting climate are: latitude, eleva- 
tion, nearness to water, prevailing winds, ocean currents, 
etc. 

Carlyle used these words: Be true if you would be 
believed. 

Dear Miss Jones: 



RULES FOR PUNCTUATION 279 

STUDY 250 
Rules for Punctuation — Continued 

THE QUESTION MARK 

Every direct question should end with a question 
mark. 
Are you happy? 

THE EXCLAMATION MARK 

An exclamation should be followed by an exclama- 
tion mark. 
Ding-dong ! Ding-dong ! 

See that gray squirrel, at the door of the fruit shop, 
whirling round and round so merrily within his wire 
wheel ! 

THE COMMA 

A comma is used: 

1. To separate words of direct address from the 
rest of the sentence. 

''Here it is, Violet!" answered Peony. 
Very well, my little friend. 

2. To separate the parts of a series unless all 
parts are joined by connecting words. 

The mill ground out hats, coats, shoes, and stockings. 

3. To separate the items of dates and addresses. 
318 North Second St., 

New Concord, Illinois. 
June 10th, 1906. 

On envelopes, however, the commas are now usually 
omitted as unnecessary. 



280 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

4. Before a title following the name of a person. 

John Smith, Chief Clerk. 

5. To separate a short quotation from the rest 
of the sentence. 

Said the bird, 'Teep, peep !" 

''My dear Epimetheus," cried Pandora, "have you 
heard this little voice?" 

6. To separate from the rest of the sentence 
words or groups of words either explanatory or 
parenthetical. 

This is not Mr. Toil, the school-master. 
He is so called from the color of his mane, which 
falls to his shoulder in a heavy black mass. 
Wolf, too, had disappeared. 
The early bird, they say, will catch the worm. 

7. To separate adverb phrases and clauses which 
are placed far from the words they modify. 

To console himself, the now apparently friendless old 
man sought the company of children. 

When Bellerophon had won the victory, he bent for- 
ward and kissed Pegasus. 

8. To separate a participial phrase from the rest 
of the sentence. 

They crowded round him, eyeing him from head to 
foot with great curiosity. 

THE HYPHEN 

A hyphen is used : 

1. To indicate the division of a word at the end 
of a line. 



RULES FOR PUNCTUATION 281 

2. To separate the parts of a temporarily com- 
pound word. 

Sharp-shooter. 
Bow-shot. 

THE APOSTROPHE 

An apostrophe is used: 

1. To indicate ownership. 
Mr. Gathergold's bed. 

2. To indicate the omission of letters. 

The little brook heard it and built a roof 
'Neath which he could house him, winter-proof. 

3. Sometimes to form plurals. 

p's and q's, 3's and 5's. 

QUOTATION MARKS 

Quotation marks are used : 

1. To inclose a direct quotation. 

As he was about to descend, he heard a voice from a 
distance, hallooing, "Rip Van Winkle ! Rip Van Winkle !" 

"These mountain beds do not agree with me," thought 
Rip, "and if this frolic should lay me up with a fit of the 
rheumatism, I shall have a blessed time with Dame Van 
Winkle." 

2. To indicate a quotation within a quotation, 

single marks are used. 

Bertha remarked, "If Grandmother were here she 
would say, 'That is a sign of good news.' " 



282 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 251 

Punctuation, Capitalization, and Paragraphing 

Study the paragraphing, the form of the sentences, 

the marks of punctuation. Be prepared to write from 

dictation and, if possible, to give a reason for each 

mark of punctuation. 

'T too have to do without my Christmas gift," she said. 
"Your father wrote me that he hoped to spend Christmas with 
us, and he has not come. He has been ordered over to the 
Potomac." 

"Never mind ; he may come yet," said Bob encouragingly. 
"He always does what he says he's going to do." (Bob 
always was encouraging. That was why he was "Old Bob.") 
"An axe was just the thing I wanted, mamma," said he, shoul- 
dering his new possession proudly and striking the attitude of 
a woodman striding off. "Now I can make an abatis." 

Mrs. Stafford's face lit up again. He was a sturdy boy, 
with wide-open eyes and a good mouth. 

"And a hatchet was what I wanted," admitted Ran, affected 
by the example. "Besides, there are a lot of nails — now I 
can make my own hare-traps." 

"An' I like a broked knife," asserted Charlie, stoutly, fall- 
ing valiantly into the general movement, while Evelyn pushed 
her long hair out of her eyes, and hugged her patched up 
baby, declaring: 

"I love my dolly, and I love Santa Claus, an' I love my 
papa," at which her mother took the little midget to her bosom, 
broken doll and all, and hid her face in her tangled curls. 

From "A Captured Santa Claus" by thomas nelson page. 



SPELLING, PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION 283 

STUDY 252 
Spelling, Punctuation, and Capitalization 

Study the following, be prepared to write it from 
dictation, and to justify each mark of punctuation: 

Of the delights of that drive over the open country I can 
give no idea. We climbed long hills ; we rode by the side of 
cool, dashing streams ; we paused under the shadow of way- 
side trees ; we caught sight of a thousand forms of f roHc life 
on the fences, in the forests, and in the depths of crystal pools ; 
we saw men at work in the fields, and I wondered if they did 
not envy us ; we met strange people on the road, who looked 
at us with curious interest ; a black fox dashed across our way, 
and, giving us a scared look, scampered into the cover and 
was gone ; bobolinks sprang up in the long grass on wings 
tangled with music, and sailed away and caught on fences to 
steady themselves ; squirrels took long races before us on the 
road-side rails ; and far up through the trees and above the 
hills white-winged clouds with breasts of downy brown floated 
against a sky of deepest blue. Never again this side of heaven 
do I expect to experience such perfect pleasure as I enjoyed 
that day — a delight in all forms and phases of nature, sharp- 
ened by the expectations of new companionships and of a 
strange new life that would open before I should sleep again. 
From "Arthur Bonnicastle" by j. G. Holland. 

Where pity dwells, the peace of God is there. 

To worship rightly is to love each other, 
Each smile a hymn, each kindly deed a prayer. 

WHITTIER. 



284 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 253 
Punctuation, Capitalization, and Paragraphing 

Give the reason for each paragraph, each capital 
letter, and each mark of punctuation. Write from 
dictation : 

*'Once there lived in a far country a httle girl named 
Lizette " 

''Now that sounds something Hke it!" exclaimed Wally 
Wanderoon with enthusiasm. "It reminds me of the Good 
Old Times we used to have. Go right ahead in that strain, 
and I'll double your wages." So the story-teller began again — 

''Once upon a time, in a far country, there lived a little 
girl named Lizette. She was a very sweet little girl, bright, 
clever, and kind-hearted. Her father and mother were very 
poor. In the cold weather they eked out a scanty living by 
gathering the dead branches of the trees in the forest, and 
selling them to their more prosperous neighbors, who used 
them as fuel. In the spring Lizette's father and mother 
gathered herbs and simples and sold them to the apothecary 
in the neighboring village. In the summer they helped their 
neighbors with their crops, and in the fall they helped to 
gather grapes." 

From "Wally Wanderoon and His Story-Telling Alachine" 

by JOEL CHANDLER HARRIS. 

STUDY 254 
Punctuation and Capitalization 

Punctuate and prepare to give a reason for each 
capital letter and mark of punctuation. 



PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION 285 

1. And what with the innumerable variety of greens the 
masses of foliage tossing in the breeze the glimpses of distance 
the descents into seemingly impenetrable thickets the continual 
dodging of the road which made haste to plunge again into the 
covert we had a fine sense of the woods and spring-time and 
the open air. 

2. Your 4s and 7^ are almost as hard to distinguish as 
your ns and us. 

3. There are more convenient weights and measures than 
the English e g the metric system of France. 

4. If a fish came to me said the Mock Turtle and told me 
he was going a journey I should say with what porpoise. 
Don't you mean purpose said Alice. 

5. Mars was the god of war and mercury the god of 
thieves and bacchus the god of drunkards and vulcan the god 
of blacksmiths. 

6. Neptune was the chief of the marine deities. It was 
supposed that he had a huge scallop shell for a chariot and 
that his horses had the tails of fishes. Whenever he rode over 
the waves a tribe of sea monsters surrounded his chariot. 

7. Flow down cold rivulet to the sea. 

8. Break break break 

At the foot of thy crags O sea. 

9. The wind blew a gale from the north the trees roared 
the corn and the deep grass in the valleys fled in whitening 
surges the dust towered into the air along the road and dis- 
persed like the smoke of battle. 



286 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 255 
Form in Composition 

Prepare to write the following from dictation, and 
to give a reason for each capital letter and each mark 
of punctuation: 

1. A good book to read is Hawthorne's ''Tanglewood 
Tales." 

2. Shakespeare wrote "The Merchant of Venice," 'The 
JMerry Wives of Windsor," "All's Well That Ends Well." 

3. Heavenly Father, send thy blessing 

On Thy children gathered here. 

4. Grant us Thy peace upon our homeward way ; 

With Thee began, with Thee shall end the day. 

5. O piteous spectacle ! O noble Caesar ! O woful day ! 

6. Ring, happy bells, across the snow. 

7. Every month comes "St. Nicholas." 

8. The Parisian sails at nine o'clock a. m., and the Tunis- 
tan at two o'clock p. M. 

9. The largest cities of the United States are New York. 
N. Y., Chicago, III, Philadelphia, Pa., St. Louis, Mo. 

10. All work, even cotton-spinning, is noble. 

11. We read this in the Mock Turtle's story: "Alice could 
hear him sighing as if his heart would break. 'What is his 
sorrow?' she asked the Gryphon. 'It's all his fancy, that!'" 

12. To watch the corn grow, or the blossoms set; to draw 
hard breath over ploughshare or spade; to read, to think, to 
love, to pray, are the things that make men happy. 



FORM IN COMPOSITION 287 

13. Honor and shame from no condition rise ; 
Act well thy part, there all the honor lies. 

14. Whenever a snowflake leaves the sky, 
It turns and turns to say, ''Good-by! 
Good-by, dear clouds, so cool and gray !" 
Then lightly travels on its way, 

MARY MAPES DODGE. 

15. Hie away, hie away! 
Over bank and over brae. 

Where the copsewood is the greenest, 
Where the fountains glisten sheenest, 
Where the lady fern grows strongest, 
Where the morning dew lies longest, 
Where the black cock sweetest sips it, 
Where the fairy latest trips it : 
Hie to haunts right seldom seen, 
Lovely, lonesome, cool, and green, 
Over bank and over brae, 
Hie away, hie away ! 

SIR WALTER SCOTT. 



CHAPTER XIX 



CORRESPONDENCE 

STUDY 256 
Parts of a Letter 

The outline here given shows the parts of a letter, 
their proper arrangement, and the punctuation of the 
introductory and closing parts. 

(Heading.) 
•■ 418 Cherry St., 

Stillwater, Minn., 
June 10, 1906. 
(Address.) 
Mannheimer Bros., 
110 Sixth St., 

St. Paul, Minn. 
Gentlemen : 
(Salutation.) 

(Body of Letter.) 



(Complimentary Close.) 
Yours truly, 

John Jones. 
(Signature.) 
288 



PARTS OF A LETTER 289 

The heading, should be full and clearly written, because it 
is the address to which the answer is to be sent. Notice the 
punctuation. 

The address is used in all business or very formal letters, 
and is placed at the upper left hand side on the second line 
below the heading. In friendly letters it is often omitted, but 
careful writers place it at the lower left hand corner. 

The salutation varies. In business letters, the following 
are in good form : , 

Sir : Gentlemen : Dear Mrs. Brown : 

Dear Sirs : Madam : Dear Miss Clarke : 

My dear Sir : Dear ]\Iadam : Mesdames : 

Notice the punctuation. Often instead of the colon, the 
comma and dash are used. Either form is considered correct. 

In writing a friendly letter the form of salutation depends 
upon the relationship or the degree of intimacy ; e. g., 

Dear Mother : My dear James : 

Dear Alice : Dear John : 

Dear Miss Goodnow : Dear Mr. Jones : 

The complimentary closing should not be carelessly written; 
it should indicate courtesy, respect, affection, or whatever 
the writer desires to express. In business letters the following 
forms are most commonly used : 

Yours truly, Very truly yours. 

Yours cordially, Yours respectfully, 

''Yours," and ''Yours etc.," are bad forms and should be 
avoided. In friendly letters there is a greater variety of 
expressions, because writers have a greater variety of feelings 
to express ; e. g., 



290 



STUDIES IX ENGLISH 



Faithfully yours, Cordially yours, 

Affectionately yours, Sincerely yours, 

Notice the punctuation of all the parts. 

The signature should be clearly and fully written, even 
though the receiver would know to whom to send a reply 
were no signature given. In case of accident, or misdirection, 
the clerks at the Dead Letter Office refer to this that they 
may know to whom to return the letter. In writing a busi- 
ness letter, an unmarried woman signs her full name. She 
may place (Miss) before it in parentheses. 

The address on the envelope should occupy the right hand 
two-thirds of the lower half. This leaves room at the top 
for the stamp and the postmark, and also space at the left for 
re-addressing when necessary. The stamp should ahvays be 
placed in the upper right-hand corner. 





STAMP 


Miss Emily R. Melvin, 




1510 Madison St., 




Toledo, Ohio 


1 



LETTERS FROM CHARLES DICKENS 291 

STUDY 257 
Letters from Charles Dickens 

Study the following letters : 

Rome, Italy, 

February 4th, 1845. 
My dearest Georgy : 

This is a very short note but time is still shorter. Come 
by the first boat by all means. If there is a good one a day 
or two before it, come by that. Don't delay on any account. 
I am very sorry you are not here. The carnival is a very re- 
markable sight. 

At two o'clock each day we sally forth in an open carriage, 
with a large sack of sugar-plums and at least five hundred 
little nosegays with which to pelt people. I should think we 
threw away, yesterday, a thousand of the nosegays. We had 
the carriage filled with flowers three or four times. I wish 
you could have seen me catch a sv^•ell brigand on the nose 
with a handful of very large confetti every time we met him. 
It was the best thing I have ever done. ''The Chimes" are 
nothing to it. 

Anxiously expecting you, I am ever, 

Yours most affectionately, 

Charles Dickens. 

Describe as best you can a ''swell brigand." Why 
was it so much fun to hit him on the nose? Why 
should they do that sort of thing at all? 



292 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

Saturday, Oct. 4th, 1856. 
Tavistock House, London. 
My dear Mamey: 

The preparations for the play are already beginning, and 
it is christened (this is a great dramatic secret which I sup- 
pose you know already) **The Frozen Deep." 

Tell Katey, with my best love, that if she fails to come 
back six times as red, hungry and strong as she was when 
she W'ent away, I shall give her part to somebody else. 

We shall all be very glad to see you both back again ; when 
I say "we" I include the birds who send their respectful duty. 
Kind regards to all at Brighton. 
Ever, my dear IMamey, your affectionate father, 

Charles Dickens. 

Notice how chatty these letters are. How did Mr. 
Dickens feel toward Mamey and Georgy? Did he 
wish to interest and give them pleasure ? Explain. 

A letter of friendship should be made as nearly as 
possible like a call. The receiver should feel that he 
has truly been with and enjoyed the company of his 
friend. This is a great art, worth much study and 
much practice to acquire. 

f STUDY 258 

Friendly Letters 
1. Recently you attended a carnival, a circus, or a fair. 
Write to a friend, telling him about the fun you enjoyed. 

Note : The writing of real letters is the best practice. W^hy 
should not pupils, at least once a month, bring stationery and write 
actual letters to relatives or friends, address the envelopes, seal the 
letters, and mail them? It is not at all essential that the teacher 
should see the letters to suggest revisions, unless asked to do so by 
the pupils. 



FRIENDLY LETTERS 293 

2. Answer for "Mamey" the letter her father wrote her, 
Study 257. Imagine that you are she, that you have been 
visiting at Brighton, that you are interested in the play and 
the birds, and that you would be very glad to be at home 
again. If possible make your letter as interesting as Charles 
Dickens made his. 

3. Your uncle has sent you by express a full-blooded Scotch 
collie. The present pleases you very much. You plan to 
teach the dog many tricks and to make a companion of him. 
What will you name him? Write a letter of thanks to your 
uncle, making him feel your pleasure. 

4. Write to a boy (or a girl), living in a part of the United 
States quite distant from your home. While you may never 
have seen the person, try to make your letter chatty and in- 
teresting. Tell about the things that interest you most, also 
those that are probably quite different from those where this 
person lives. 

5. Your father has promised you that he will take four of 
your friends with you for an all day trip. Write an invita- 
tion to one of them, stating at what time he is to be ready, 
who will be in the party, and any other facts that seem 
courteous. 

6. Write the reply to the foregoing invitation. Express 
your pleasure and try to make your friend glad that he invited 
you. 

7. Your mother has told you that you may have a picnic 
down in the grove by the brook. Write an invitation to the 



294 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

boys and girls who live on the next farm. Tell them that 
you will meet them in the grove. Write them directions where 
to drive so as to avoid the longer way by the house. 

8. Write a reply to the foregoing. Tell which of the girls 
and the boys can come. One must remain at home to assist 
the mother. 

9. Suppose that you are at Amsterdam in Holland. You 
have watched the boats laden with merchandise pass leisurely 
through the canals. Yesterday you took the boat to Zaan- 
dam, and went sailing between the pastures where the sleek 
cattle were grazing. You counted forty or more windmills 
throwing their long arms round and round. You watched the 
country folk work and the children run and skip, hindered not 
at all by the heavy wooden shoes. You know now why they 
wear wooden shoes. 

Write of Holland to a friend at home. Think of that friend 
as you write to him or her and try to make your letter free 
and chatty. 

STUDY 259 
A Business Letter 

A business letter must be very definite and as brief 
as possible. This does not mean that words should 
be abbreviated or sentences only partially formed; 
but it does mean that a business man should be asked 
to read only what is necessary that he may know 
clearly the conditions involved. 



A BUSINESS LETTER 295 

The following is a good business letter : 

659 Huron St., 

Grand Rapids, Mich., 
March 4, 1907. 

Mr. George A. Brown, 
256 Woodward Ave., 
Detroit, ]\Iich. 

Dear Sir: 

^'our letter of March 3 has been received, and I am very 
glad to know that you have an opening for a boy in your 
wholesale department. 

I am sixteen years of age and have completed three years' 
work in the High School with full credit. My summer vaca- 
tions, the p^st two years, I spent in the shipping rooms of 
J. B. Anderson & Co. of this city. While your work will be 
quite different, I think the experience I have had will be of 
some value in any position. 

Regarding my character and fitness for the position, I have 
permission to refer you to Mr. J. B. Anderson, 291 Lake St., 
and to ^Ir. A. C. Cameron, Principal of the Central High 
School, Grand Rapids,. Mich. 

I hope my application may receive favorable consideration, 
and that I may be given a chance to show my ability and 
willingness to give you good service. 

Yours truly, 

Henry C. Baker. 



296 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 260 
Business Letters 

1. Write to Charles E. Markhan, General Passenger Agent 
of the Erie and Western Transportation Company, Buffalo, 
New York, inquiring, (1) the passenger rate by boat from 
Duluth to Quebec, (2) the times when the boats sail, and 
(3) how long beforehand it is necessary definitely to engage 
passage. 

2. You wish to earn money next summer. Apply for a 
position which you think you can fill satisfactorily. Among 
other things, tell your qualifications. Make the man or the 
woman to whom you write want you, but do not promise any- 
thing that you cannot fulfill. 

3. You have saved three dollars, sufficient money to order 
the St. Nicholas magazine as a Christmas present for your 
brother. St. Nicholas is published by the Century Company. 
Union Square, New York City. State in your letter the 
amount of money and the form in which you are sending it, 
the address to which the magazine is to be sent, and the 
number with which you wish your subscription to begin. 

4. Write to a book dealer, inquiring the price of the five 
books you most want to possess. If any of these books appear 
in different editions, state which edition you prefer. 

Note: The teacher should show pupils how to fold and enclose 

different forms of stationery. 



BUSINESS FORMS 297 

STUDY 261 
Telegrams 

In telegrams the address and the signature are sent 
free of charge. These should be expressed so clearly 
that there can be no mistake. Charges are made for 
the body of the telegram. Figures are counted as 
separate words. Do these rates depend upon the dis- 
tance ? The lowest rate allows how many words ? 

1. You are away from home and have planned to return. 
Telegraph your father, telling him upon what train you will 
reach the nearest station, and asking him to meet you. Put 
this into not more than ten words. 

2. Telegraph an acquaintance in Chicago, making a busi- 
ness appointment with him. Tell him when and where you 
will meet him. Use not more than ten words. 

3. Your aunt has written that she is coming to visit you 
and asks you to meet her at the station, but she does not tell 
you by what train or road she will come. Write a telegram 
asking her to wire this information. 

STUDY 262 
Business Forms 

TIME NOTE 

$150i2^ Chicag-0, 111., May 1, 1907. 

Six months after date, I promise to pay Andrew Ball one 
hundred fifty f^ dollars, with interest at 6%. Value received. 

George R. Simpson. 



298 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 



DEMAND NOTE 



$175 iVo St. Paul, Minn., May 1, 1907. 

On demand, I promise to pay Samuel Wrong one hundred 
seventy-five -^^ dollars, with interest at 5%. Value received. 

C. A. Thomas. 

RECEIPT ON ACCOUNT 

$95-iVo Topeka, Kan., ^lay 6, 1907. 

Received of Frank Hammond ninety-five -jVo" tlollars on 
account. 

Charles G. Dawson. 

RECEIPT IN FULL 

$126^4^ Rockford. 111., May 9, 1907. 

Received of Thomas C. Piatt one hundred twenty-six ^W 
dollars, in full of all demands to date. 

H. H. Bennett. 

Write similar notes and receipts. 



STUDY 263 
Social Correspondence 

In formal invitations and replies the third person 
is ahvays used. They should be dated at the bottom 
and unsigned. 

FORMAL INVITATION 

Miss Margaret Beattie requests the pleasure of IMiss Ruth 
Randall's company on Tuesday evening, October sixteenth, 
at eight o'clock. 

121 Willard Avenue, 
October tenth. 



SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE 299 

ACCEPTANCE OF FORMAL INVITATION 

Miss Ruth Randall accepts with pleasure Miss Beattie's 
invitation for Tuesday evening next. 
1061 Euclid Avenue, 
October eleventh. 

FORMAL INVITATION NOT ACCEPTED 

Miss Belle Wilson regrets that the serious illness of her 
brother prevents her acceptance of Miss Beattie's kind invi- 
tation for Tuesday evening. 

Green Lodge, October twelfth. ' 

Write a formal invitation, an acceptance, and 
regrets for Mrs. William Allen, Miss Frances Hall, 
and Mr. Gordon Brown. 



Better Than Gold 

Better than grandeur, better than gold, 
Than rank and titles, a hundred-fold, 
Is a healthy body, a mind at ease, 
And simple pleasures that always please. 
A heart that can feel for another's woe, 
And share in his joy with a friendly glow, 
With sympathies large enough to hold 
All men as brothers, is better than gold. 

— SMART. 



CHAPTER XX 



WORDS— Continued 

STUDY 264 
Synonyms 

Consult the dictionary, observe how these words 
are used, give the meaning of each, and use in 
sentences: 

1. assurance, confidence. 

2. ability, capacity. 

3. allowance, salary, wages, hire, pay. 

4. attention, application, study. 

5. acceptation, acceptance, 

6. middle, center. 

7. associate, companion. 

STUDY 265 
The Use of Words 

FORMS OF VERBS 

Use these verbs in sentences, first showing present 
time; second, with has or have; third, with some form 
of he; fourth, showing past time ; as, 

Jay writes very carefully. 

He has written many neat papers. 

300 



THE USE OF WORDS 



301 



His exercises are written with much care. 
He wrote me a long letter. 
See Study 178. 



1. 


do 


4. see 


7. bid 


2. 


set 


5. raise 


8. begin 


3. 


lay 


6. bring 

STUDY 266 
The Use of Words 

FORMS OF VERBS 


9. prove 



Use these verbs in sentences, first showing present 
time; second, with have or has; third, showing past 
time : 



. sit 


4. run 


7. 


fly 


!. lie 


5. dive 


8. 


shine 


i. come 


6. go 

STUDY 267 
The Use of Words 

FORMS OF VERBS 


9. 


swim 



Use these verbs in sentences first showing present 
time; second, with has or have; third, with some form 
of be; fourth, showing past time: 

7. show 

8. slay 



1. overflow 

2. weave 

3. shake 



4. beat 

5. drive 

6. break 



9. forget 



302 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 268 
The Use of Words 

FORMS OF VERBS 

Use these verbs in sentences, first showing present 
time; second, with has or have; third, showing past 
time. See Study 178. 

1. rise 4, crow 7. write 

2. strive 5. weep 8. drink 

3. fall 6. spring 9. fight 

STUDY 269 
The Use of Words 

FORMS OF VERBS 

Select the correct form from the alternative words, 
and prepare to give a reason for your choice. 

1. Joseph (saw, seen) a robin this morning. 

2. He (come, came) to school early. 

3. They (did, done) their work together. 

4. Afterward they (run, ran)^ a race, 

5. You may (sit, set) the vase of flowers here. 

6. The children (set, sit) in those seats. 

7. I (run, ran) the entire distance. 

8. Our cousins (come, came) on the train yesterday 
morning. 

9. The boys (did, done) the work well. 
10. All of the girls (set, sit) in this row. 

Rewrite the above sentences, changing each verb 
to the present perfect tense; that is, use have or has 
with the right form of each verb. 



THE USE OF WORDS 303 

STUDY 270 
The Use of Words 

Select the correct word of the following pairs, and 
be prepared to give a reason for your choice. 

1. We (was, were) late this morning. 

2. You (was, were) late yesterday. 

3. The condition of the seats (was, were) snch that they 
could not be used. , 

4. Neither Alary nor Jane (is, are) here. 

5. When the storm came, the child (began, begun) to cry. 

6. The country looks (beautiful, beautifully) now. 

7. A long consideration of these duties (make, makes) 
me hesitate to accept them. 

8. The most important of all the rules (is, are) repeated 
often. 

9. Father is not feeling (well, good) to-day. 

10. The choir did not sing very (well, good) to-night. 



Memory Quotation 

Flower in the crannied wall, 

I pluck you out of the crannies, 

I hold you here, root and all, in my hand. 

Little flower — but if I could understand 

What you are, root and all, and all in all, 

I should know what God and man is. 

ALFRED TENNYSON. 



CHAPTER XXI 



NARRATION 

Probably the best form of composition for the 
young writers to practice extensively is narration, or 
story writing. First, it is likely to be most interest- 
ing to the writer, affording, as it does, the opportun- 
ity of telling of interesting personal experiences, and 
of incidents and events not generally known. Second, 
the story is the form of literature most read by chil- 
dren, and must, therefore, be the model which most 
aids them in their early writing. Third, because it is 
the simplest form of composition, young writers can, 
through the story, most readily learn to criticize their 
own work, and most surely attain satisfactory results. 

STUDY 271 
A Model Story 

Sir Philip Sidney, a brave English Knight, was fighting in 
the Netherlands, helping the Dutch in their struggle for lib- 
erty against the tyrant, PhiHp of Spain. 

In a fierce battle he was struck by a musket ball, which 
broke his thigh-bone. Thirsty and faint from loss of blood, 
he called for water. He had just raised the cup to his lips, 
when his eye fell upon a poor dying soldier who looked long- 
ingly at the cool drink. 

304 



A MODEL STORY 305 

Without so much as tasting it, Sir Philip handed the cup to 
the poor fellow with these words : "Thy need is greater than 
mine/' 

Study this story carefully so that you can answer 
the following questions : 

1. What part of the story serves as an introduction? 

2. Find the point of the story, or the main incident. 

3. Why should this part come where it does? 

4. Find the part that develops the story^ or prepares the 
reader for the chief incident. 

5. Does the narration of events follow the order of their 
occurrence ? 

6. Is there any unnecessary detail, that is, could any state- 
ment be omitted without marring the story? 

7. Could you improve the story by changing any of the 
words or phrases? 

If we answer these questions correctly we shall find 
that in a well-told story five principles have been 
observed: 

1. There is an introduction which presents the 
leading actor or actors and lays the scene. This 
should be so interesting that the reader or listener 
will want to know what follows. 

2. There is a development of the story, giving a 
number of facts in such a way that the reader or 
listener wonders what the outcome will be. 

3. The main incident, or point, of the story must 
come near the last, in the conclusion, because after 



306 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

the chief incident has been told the interest cannot be 
kept up. 

4. The events should be recorded in the order in 
which they occurred or are supposed to have occurred. 

5. No more details should be given than are neces- 
sary to a clear and full understanding of the story. 

Go over the story of ''Sir Philip Sidney'' again and 
see whether these rules have been observed. 

Write a short story according to this model. 



STUDY 272 
Literature and Composition 

THE ENGLISH LARK AND THE MINERS 

Near the gold mines of Australia, by a little squatter's 
house that was thatched and whitewashed in EngHsh fashion, 
a group of rough English miners had come together to listen 
in that far-away country to the singing of the Enghsh lark. 

Like most singers, he kept them waiting a bit. But at 
last, just at noon, when the mistress of the house had war- 
ranted him to sing, the little feathered exile began as it were 
to tune his pipes. The savage men gathered around the cage 
that moment,' and amidst a dead stillness the bird uttered some 
very uncertain chirps, but after a while he seemed to revive 
his memories and call his ancient cadences back to him one 
by one. And then the saiue sun that had warmed his little 
heart at home came glowing down on him here, and he gave 
music back 'foi- it more and more, till at last, amidst breathless 



LITERATURE AND COMPOSITION 307 

silence and glistening eyes of the rough diggers hanging on, 
his voice outburst in that distant land his English song. 

It swelled his little throat and gushed from him with thrill- 
ing force and plenty, and every time he checked his song to 
think of its theme, the green meadows, the quiet, stealing 
streams, the clover he first soared from, and the spring, he 
sang so well, a loud sigh from many a rough bosom, many a 
wild and wicked heart, told how tight the listeners had held 
their breath to hear him ; and when he swelled with song 
again, and poured forth with all his soul the green meadows, 
the quiet brooks, the honey clover, and the English spring, 
the rugged mouths opened and so stayed, and the shaggy lips 
trembled, and more than one tear trickled from fierce, un- 
bridled hearts down bronzed and rugged cheeks. Sweet Home ! 

CHARLES READE. 

How many parts in this composition? What are 
these parts called? What is the topic of each 
paragraph ? 

This also is a good model of a short story. The 
first part, the introduction, gives in a brief way the 
characters and the situation. Notice how much is 
well told in a few words. The second part, the devel- 
opment of the story, gives all the main facts of the 
incident. The third part, the conclusion, rounds the 
story out and reveals its real purpose. 

What do you think is the real purpose of this story? 
What feeling does the author wish to arouse? Can 
you trace the steps in calling up this feeling? 



308 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 273 
Reproduction Stories 
Before telling or writing a story plan it entire. 
Decide upon the introduction, the development, the 
closing events; just what points are essential to the 
story in order to understand the closing. Write the 
topic of each paragraph. 

Prepare to tell or write five stories that you have 
enjoyed in the reading class this year. 

STUDY 274 ^ 

Original Stories 

Tell or write of an incident in connection with one 
or more of the following: 



1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 

5. 


Fourth of July. 
Christmas Time. 
A Camping Trip. 
A First Day of Some 

School Year. 
Recess. 




6. A Walk to School. 

7. A Party. 

8. The Best Time You Ever 

Had. 

9. A Policeman. 
10. A Game. 




STUDY 275 




Story 


of 


an Accident 



Yesterday an electric automobile became unman- 
ageable. Where did it go? Two children and the 
nurse were in the car; what happened to them? 
Decide on the main incident and tell the story, working 
directly toward this incident and stopping when you 
have told it. 



TWENTY GOOD STORIES 309 

STUDY 276 

Story of a Rescue 

Last week a baby was rescued from a burning 
building. Account for the presence of the child in 
the building. Who rescued it? How was it done? 
Decide on what you will make the main incident and 
tell the story. 

STUDY 277 
Reproduction of a Funny Story 

Tell or write the funniest story you remember 
having heard. 

STUDY 278 
Reproduction Stories 

Write the story you liked best as a child. 
Write or tell the best fairy story you know. 

STUDY 279 
Reproduction of a Humorous Story 

Write the most humorous story you have ever 
read. 

STUDY 280 
Twenty Good Stories 

The best work in narrative composition will be done 
with stories the pupils like. The following are sug- 
gested for supplementary work where needed. 



310 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

1. The Landing of the Pilgrims. 

2. Washington Crossing the Delaware. 

3. Storming of Stony Point. 

4. Sheridan's Ride. 

5. The Invention of the Cotton Gin. 

6. Story of the Wandering Jew. 

7. Androcles and the Lion. 

8. Perseus and the Gorgon's Head. 

9. King Midas and the Golden Touch. 

10. Jason and the Golden Fleece. 

11. kuth. (Book of Ruth.) 

12. The Finding of Moses. 

13. David Playing for Saul. (Samuel I, 16:14-23.) 

14. The Friendship of Saul and Jonathan. (Samuel L) 

15. Joseph Sold Into Egypt. (Genesis 15.) 

16. The Burial of Evangeline's Father. (Longfellow.) 

17. Mr. Bear Catches Old Mr. Bull-Frog. (Joel Chandler 
Harris.) 

18. Rip Van Winkle. (Irving.) 

19. King of the Golden River. (Ruskin.) 

20. Legend of Sleepy Hollow. (Irving.) 

Memory Quotation 

Oh, may I join the choir invisible 

Of those immortal dead who live again 

In minds made better by their presence ; live 

In pulses stirred to generosity, 

In deeds of daring rectitude, in scorn 

Of miserable aims that end with self, 

In thoughts sublime that pierce the night like stars, 

And with their mild persistence urge men's minds 

To vaster issues : — So to live is heaven. 

GEORGE ELIOT. 



CHAPTER XXII 



DESCRIPTION 

STUDY 281 
The Basis of Descriptive Power 

Sometimes we hear it said of a certain speaker or 
writer, — ''He has splendid powers of description." 
The remark indicates at once the rarity and value of 
the power to describe in words. This power in oral 
and written language is important for two reasons: 

First, because the art of describing is the art of 
making pictures with words, and pictures make a 
language that every one understands. 

Second, while there are many forms of composi- 
tion, description enters more or less into all of them, 
especially those most commonly used, explanation 
and narration. 

On the other hand the power of description is 
uncommon because it is not easily acquired. Language 
shows the kind of thinking one does. The power to 
use descriptive language well depends upon several 
conditions : 

1. The writer must be a good observer ; must ''take 
things in," as we say. He must not only see things 
as wholes but he must notice peculiar features, 
unusual characteristics, special resemblances and dif- 

311 



312 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

ferences that ordinarily pass unnoticed. This habit 
of mind enables a writer to use apt comparisons and 
striking contrasts, and to give his word pictures little 
touches that are original ; they are his own. We say 
such a writer has an individuality, meaning his writ- 
ing is different from, and probably better than, the 
ordinary. 

2. Descriptive power implies, too, a good memory 
for the things observed; for the form of objects, for 
size, color, and position. 

3. To this one must add the power to make clear 
mental pictures of the things to be described, 

4. Finally, there must be a ready command of 
words that best represent the mental pictures ; that is 
to say, one must be able to use words that will make 
mental pictures for other persons. 

STUDY 282 

Description of a Dog 

Here is a description of a dog named Rab. It is 
written by Dr. John Brown. Which of Dr. Brown's 
dog stories have you read? 

There are no such dogs now. He belonged to a lost tribe. 
As I have said, he was brindled and gray Hke Rubislaw gran- 
ite ; his hair short, hard, and close, Hke a lion's ; his body 
thick-set, like a little bull, — a sort of compressed Hercules of a 
dog. He must have been ninety pounds weight at the least ; 
he had a large, blunt head; his muzzle black as night, his 
mouth blacker than any night, a tooth or two — being all he 



THE DESCRIPTION OF A DOG 313 

had — gleaming out of his jaws of darkness. His head was 
scarred with the records of old wounds, a sort of series of 
fields of battle all over it ; one eye out, one ear cropped as close 
as was Archbishop Leighton's father's ; the remaining eye had 
the power of two; and above it, and in constant communica- 
tion with it, was a tattered rag of an ear, which was forever 
unfurling itself, like an old flag; and then that bud of a tail, 
about one inch long, if it could in any sense be said to be long, 
being as broad as long, — the mobility, the instantaneousness of 
that bud were very funny and surprising, anjd its expressive 
twinklings, and winkings, the intercommunications between the 
eye, the ear, and it, were the oddest and swiftest. 

Rab had the dignity and simplicity of great size; and hav- 
ing fought his way all along the road to absolute supremacy, 
he was as mighty in his own line as Julius Caesar or the Duke 
of Wellington, and had the gravity of all great fighters. 

You must have often observed the likeness of certain men 
to certain animals, and of certain dogs to men. Now, I never 
looked at Rab without thinking of the great Baptist preacher, 
Andrew Fuller. The same large, heavy, menacing, combative, 
somber, honest countenance ; the same deep, inevitable eye ; 
the same look, — as of thunder asleep, but ready, — neither a 
dog nor a man to be trifled with. 

What is the purpose of the first statement? As 
you read the sentences mark the words that espe- 
cially attract your attention. What would be the 
efifect of substituting other words for compressed, 
blunt, gleaming, tattered, unfurling, mobility, dig- 
nity, absolute supremacy, gravity, menacing, somber, 
inevitable? 

Why does he compare the dog with men ? 

Write a description of a dog or a horse you know. 



314 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 283 
A Character Sketch 
Study carefully Dickens' description of Scrooge: 

Oh! but he was a tight-fisted hand at the grindstone, 
Scrooge! a squeezing, wrenching, grasping, scraping, clutch- 
ing, covetous old sinner ! Hard and sharp as flint, from which 
no steel had ever struck out generous fire ; secret, and self- 
contained, and solitary as an oyster. The cold within him 
froze his old features, nipped his pointed nose, shriveled his 
cheek, stiffened his gait ; made his eyes red, his thin lips blue ; 
and spoke out very shrewdly in his grating voice. A frosty 
rim was on his head, and on his eyebrows, and his wiry chin. 
He carried his own low temperature always about with him ; 
he iced his office in dog-days; and didn't thaw it one degree 
at Christmas. 

External heat and cold had little influence on Scrooge. 
No warmth could warm, no wintry weather chill him. No 
wind that blew was bitterer than he, no falling snow was more 
intent upon its purpose, no pelting rain less open to entreaty. 
Foul weather didn't know where to have him. The heaviest 
rain, and snow, and hail, and sleet, could boast of advantage 
over him in only one respect. They often "came down" hand- 
somely, and Scrooge never did. 

Nobody ever stopped him in the street to say, with glad- 
some look, ''My dear Scrooge, how are you? When will you 
come to see me?" No beggars implored him to bestow a 
trifle, no children asked him what it was o'clock, no man 
or woman ever once in all his life inquired the way to such 
and such a place, of Scrooge. Even the blind men's dogs 



LITERATURE AND COMPOSITION 315 

appeared to know him; and, when they saw him coming on. 
would tug their owners into doorways and up courts ; and 
then would wag their tails as though they said, "No eye at 
all is better than an evil eye, dark master!" 

From this description do you feel that you know 
Scrooge? How do you like him? Would you like 
to live with him or work for him? Make a list of 
the words and phrases that have most to do with 
making the picture. 

If you were writing this would you change the 
paragraphing or the punctuation? If so, where and 
wh}^? 

Describe a man who is just the opposite of Scrooge. 

STUDY 284 
Literature and Composition 

THE LOCKSMITH OF THE GOLDEN KEY 

From the workshop of the Golden Key there issued forth 
a tinkling sound, so merry and good-humored that it sug- 
gested the idea of some one working blithely, and made quite 
pleasant music. Tink, tink, tink — clear as a silver bell, and 
audible at every pause of the street's harsher noises, as though 
it said, ''I don't care ; nothing puts me out ; I am resolved to 
be happy." 

Women scolded, children squalled, heavy carts went rumb- 
ling by, horrible cries proceeded from the lungs of hawkers. 
Still it struck in again, no higher, no lower, no louder, no 
softer ; not thrusting itself on people's notice a bit the more for 
having been outdone by louder sounds — tink, tink, tink, tink, 
tink. 

It was a perfect embodiment of the still small voice, free 



316 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

from all cold, hoarseness, huskiness, or unhealthiness of any 
kind. Foot-passengers slackened their pace, and were disposed 
to linger near it. Neighbors who had got up splenetic that 
morning felt good humor stealing on them as they heard it, 
and by degrees became quite sprightly. Mothers danced their 
babies to its ringing — still the same magical tink, tink, tink, 
came gayly from the workshop of the Golden Key. 

Who but the locksmith could have made such music? A 
gleam of sun, shining through the unsashed window, and 
checkering the dark workshop with a broad patch of light, 
fell full upon him, as though attracted by his sunny heart. 
There he stood, working at his anvil, his face radiant with 
exercise and gladness — the easiest, freest, happiest man in all 
the world. 

Beside him sat a sleek cat, purring and winking in the light, 
and falling every now and then into an idle doze, as from 
excess of comfort. The very locks that hung around had some- 
thing jovial in their rust, and seemed like gouty old gentle- 
men of hearty natures, disposed to joke on their infirmities. 

There was nothing surly or severe in the whole scene. It 
seemed impossible that any one of the innumerable keys could 
fit a churlish strong-box or a prison door. Storehouses of 
good things, rooms where there were fires, books, gossip, and 
cheering laughter — these were their proper sphere of action. 
Places of distrust and cruelty and restraint they would have 
quadruple locked forever. 

Tink, tink, tink. No man who hammered on at a dull, 
monotonous duty could have brought such cheerful notes from 
steel and iron ; none but a chirping, healthy, honest-hearted 



SUPPLEMENTARY TOPICS 317 

fellow, who made the best of everything, and felt kindly 
toward everybody, could have done it for an instant. He 
might have been a coppersmith, and still been musical. Tf he 
had sat in a jolting wagon, full of rods of iron, it seemed as 
if he would have brought some harmony out of it. 

From "Barnaby Rudge" — dickens. 

This is a good piece of description in which narrative is 
used. 

Try to find the main topic of each paragraph in the descrip- 
tion of "The Locksmith of the Golden Key." 

Find the topic sentence in four of the paragraphs. 

Notice the variety in the words beginning sentences. 

What parts, if any, of the sketch remind you of something 
you have heard? 

In a similar way describe the sound that comes from some 
shop, mill or factory. 

STUDY 285 
Supplementary Topics 

At intervals of two or three weeks, write on some 
such topic as the following: 

1. Describe a scene familiar to you. 

2. Describe : A policeman, the milkman, or a farmer's 
hired man. 

3. Describe an elephant and a camel by contrasting them. 

4. Describe a carpet-sweeper and a broom by contrasting 
them. 

5. Describe, by comparison, a vacation spent in the coun- 
try and one spent in the city. 



318 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

6. Compare, instead of contrast, an elephant and a camel. 

7. Compare a carpet-sweeper and a broom. 

8. Describe a character from a story you are reading or 
have lately read. 

9. Without naming them, describe two kinds of forest 
trees so that a reader who knows the trees can recognize each 
kind. Illustrate your description. 

10. Describe : 

1. The church building in which you attend service. 

2. The school house where you go to school. 

11. Write a description of the flower that you like best. 
Suppose that the reader had never seen this kind of flower, 
and make the description so plain that he would recognize it 
at once. 

12. Describe the house in which you live, so that a stranger 
could recognize it. Think about it all before you begin to 
write; plan the order in which you will tell things and the 
topic of each paragraph. Sometimes it is well to give a 
description of the house as it appears at a distance, then 
gradually take the reader nearer thus permitting him to see 
more and more of the details. Remember that the observer 
cannot see the front windows and the back windows at the 
same time. If he is to go around the house, he must go natur- 
ally ; i. e., perhaps from the front to one side, then to the back 
and then to the other side. He cannot jump from the front 
to the back and then from one side to the other. The point 
of view should not be changed often, and never without an 
intimation that such change is made. 



CHAPTER XXIII 



WORDS— Continued 

STUDY 286 
Correct Use of Prepositions 

Many prepositions are frequently used incorrectly. 
Only careful observation of good usage, and careful 
practice can establish right habits. The following 
suggestions will indicate some of the pitfalls: 

1. Betzveen is used in referring to two persons or things, 
among in referring to more than two. 

2. Compare one thing ivith a thing of like nature ; as, one 
horse, dog, book, speech, song, with another. But compare 
one thing to another of unlike nature, having some resem- 
blance; as, life to a stream; conduct to the fruits of a tree; 
sorrow to a storm. 

3. Into expresses motion from without to the inside of 
some space ; in expresses motion within some indicated space ; 
e. g., The man went into the house and groped about in the 
dark. 

4. We buy or otherwise get things of persons, not ojf 
them. 

5. We have surprise parties for our friends, not on them. 

6. After attended, accompanied, beset, overcome, struck. 
etc., (a) use by in speaking of persons, animals, or other active 
agents ; as, attended by friends ; beset by enemies ; overcome by 

.319 



320 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

the heat; (b) use with in speaking of things of quiet, passive 
nature ; as attended with consequences ; overcome with grief; 
struck zvith beauty. 

7. We differ with another person in opinion, on a point, 
and about a matter. But one person or thing is different from 
another. 

STUDY 287 

Correct Use of Prepositions 

Copy the following sentences, using- the right prep- 
ositions. Read the correct sentence aloud several 
times. 

1. Divide the apples (among, betv^een) the boys and 
girls. 

2. The climate is very different (to, from) what I 
expected. 

3. Your v^rork seems fine in comparison (to, with) mine. 

4. They accused the umpire (with, of) acting partially. 

5. You were very ill (with, of) typhoid fever at the 
time. 

6. Father will be angry (at, with) us. 

7. Can you divide it (in, into) three equal parts? 

8. While there, we nearly died (with, of) starvation. 

9. Crossing the bridge, the dog dropped the meat (in, 
into) the river. 

10. Contrast your work (to, with) his and notice the 
difference. 

11. The rain poured (in, into) the room through the 
window. 

12. We were struck (by, with) the beauty of the landscape. 



THE CORRECT USE OF CONJUNCTIONS 321 

In the blanks supply the appropriate preposition : 

1. The bird flew a thick shrub. 

2. Try to free yourself that notion. 

3. The farm will be sold auction. 

4. We cannot become reconciled the change. 

5. The committee cleared him all l^lame. 

6. The thief stole a horse a farmer. 

7. He sprang -the platform and quieted the mob. 

8. He leaped the carriage and stopped the horses. 

STUDY 288 

The Correct Use of Conjunctions 

Copy these sentences, using only the correct words 
from those in parentheses: 

1. I do not know (as, that) I shall go. 

2. We shall find it (without, unless) some one has stolen 
it since yesterday. 

3. I had scarcely reached the street (than, when) some 
one called me. 

4. Who could do otherwise (but, than) accept the offer. 

5. There is no doubt (but what, that) he is honest. 

6. The chances are two to one (but, that) he will forget 
it. 

7. Neither the chief (or, nor) his clerk could be found. 

8. No sooner had I left the boat (than, when) it sank. 

9. I will begin work (directly, as soon as) they have 
gone. 

10. Stand on the bench so (as, that) all can see you. 



322 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

STUDY 289 
Synonyms 

Consult the dictionary, talk over the meaning of 
these words in class, then use them correctly in 
sentences : 

1. linger, tarry, loiter, la^, saunter. 

2. desire, wish, long- for, covet. 

3. find, find out, discover, invent. 

4. acquire, obtain, gain, win, earn. 

5. abuse, misuse. 

6. ask, beg, request. 

7. happen, chance. 

STUDY 290 
The Correct Use of Words 

Fill each blank space below w^ith the proper word, 
shall or zmll. Prepare to give a reason for your 
choice. See Study 164, and footnote page 160. 

1. I find you at home this evening? 

2. I hope we not be late. 

3. How soon you be able to do it? 

4. I succeed alone ; you not help me. 

5. The agents report daily. 

6. Though he slay me, 3^et I never forsake him. 

7. The criminal be brought to justice. 

8. we have time to rest a moment ? 

9. you call at my home for the papers? 

10. He asks how he address the letter. 



CHOICE OF WORDS 323 

STUDY 291 

The Correct Use of Words 

Fill each blank correctly with should or zvoiild. Be 
prepared to give a reason for your choice. See Study 
164. 

1. That is better than I be able to do. 

2. I think if you ask him he — ■ — give it to you. 

3. you be surprised to hear of it? 

4. Though I be killed for it, yet I not deny it. 

5. I be sorry to see you fail. 

6. They all thought I be hurt. 

7. We thought he be killed. 

8. I like to go to Europe. 

9. What we do without farmers? 

10. I think they have known better. 

STUDY 292 
Choice of Words 

Copy the following sentences using only the correct 
w^ord of the two in parentheses. Prepare to give a 
reason for your choice. See Study 164. 

1. The boys (will, shall) not go to-night. 

2. Tell me, (shall, will) you be there? 

3. I (shall, will) not help you. 

4. The master (will, shall) not impose upon me. 

5. What (will, shall) be the penalty for failure? 

6. My friends thought I (would, should) make the trial. 



324 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

7. If father (would, should) send me some money, I 
could go. 

8. After what has been said, do you think I (would, 
should) go? 

9. The men (should, would) pay their debts, but cannot. 
10. I saw plainly that you (would, should) accept. 



STUDY 293 
Faulty Sentences 
Criticise and correct the following sentences: 

1. Wanted a saddle horse for a young lady not afraid of 
the cars. 

2. Having left my bed and board, I will not be responsible 
■for debts contracted by my wife. 

3. While Elwood Gardner was caring for a colt in the 
stable, Thursday, he reared and kicked him in the stomach, 
hurting him so badly that he is not able to do anything. 

4. A few friends of the deceased followed the remains 
to Pine Grove Cemetery, where they were quietly interred in 
a new lot. 

5. While oiling the gearing of the machine, his hand 
caught in it, nearly taking it off. 

6. He called upon them to stamp it out with an iron hand. 

7. I will pay the above reward to any person who will 
prove that the above facts are untrue. 

8. His frailties, which none of us are without, were cf the 
head, not of the heart. 



THE ROSE AND THE GARDENER 325 

9. You have great cause to be thankful for the many 
temptations from which you have been saved. 

10. The heroic Spanish gunners had no defense but two 
bags of cotton, joined to their own insuperable courage. 

11. Sometimes he would lay awake half the night, thinking 
over the events that have transpired during the day. 

12. Parties who anticipate purchasing an organ or piano 
would save money by calling or corresponding with me. 

The Rose and the Gardener 

The Rose in the garden slipped her bud. 
And she laughed in the pride of her youthful blood 
As she thought of the Gardener standing by — 
"He is old — so old ; and he soon will die !" 

The full Rose waxed in the warm June air, 
And she spread and spread, till her heart lay bare. 
And she laughed once more as she heard his tread, 
''He is older now. He will soon be dead!" 

But the breeze in the morning blew, and found 
That the leaves of the blown Rose strewed the ground ; 
And he came at noon that Gardener old, 
And he raked them softly under the mould. 

And I wove the thing to a random rhyme. 
For the Rose is Beauty: the Gardener, Time. 

AUSTIN DOBSON. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 



EXPLANATION 

STUDY 294 
How Growing Toads Cast Their Skin 

The toad, as well as the frog, casts its skin in the process 
of growth. When the skin has become too small, and the 
shedding approaches, the white, green and brown colors of the 
coat become dull, and a strange dryness appears. A new skin 
is forming under the outgrown one, which presently splits in 
half down the middle of the back and the under part of the 
body. 

The toad now begins to twist and twitch, and the old skin 
wrinkles and folds along the sides. Then the toad tucks a 
hind leg under his forearm, and gives a good pull, and lo, he 
is out of that leg of his trousers. Then the other leg comes 
ofif in the same way. Next he puts one of his hands in his 
mouth, and giving a jerk, pulls oil the covering of that hand 
and arm, like a discarded glove. Then off comes the other. 
Now then, what? He rolls the outgrown skin into a neat 
ball and swallows it. The frog strips off and disposes of his 
skin in the same way. 

JULIA MCNAIR WRIGHT. 

1. What is the topic of the first paragraph? of the second? 

2. How many steps in the process are described? 

3. Could the order of steps be satisfactorily changed? 

326 



AN ADAGE 327 

4. Is there a punctuation mark you would like to omit or 
change ? 

5. What words and phrases are of special value in making 
the description interesting and clear? Why? 

Study some process and then write an explanation of it. 

STUDY 295 
How to Make Something 

Tell how to make one of the following, or some- 
thing else : 

1. A kite. 4. One variety of candy. 

2. A photograph. 5. Cheese. 

3. A pot of coffee. 6. Bricks. 

STUDY 296 
Gardening 

Tell how^ to grow one of the following: 

1. Sweet Peas. 4. Indian Corn. 7. Cotton. 

2. Pansies. 5. Tomatoes. 8. Strawberries. 

3. Potatoes. . 6. Celery. 9. Peanuts. 

STUDY 297 
An Adage 

Explain this saying from 'Toor Richard's 
Almanac," 

''Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn in no 
other, and scarce in that." 



328 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

STUDY 298 
A Mechanical Device 
Explain the working of one of the following : 

1. An Qgg beater. 4. A common pump. 

2. A lawn mower. 5. A milking machine. 

3. A windmill, 6. A canal lock. 



Memory Selection 

MUSIC IN NATURE 

The song of nature is forever. 
Her joyous voices falter never; 
On hill and valley, near and far, 
Attendant her musicians are. 

From waterbrook or forest tree 
For aye comes gentle melody; 
The very air is music blent, 
A universal instrument, 

For now the Heavenly Father 

Makes all things new. 
And thaws the cold, and fills 

The flower with dew, 
And blackbirds have their wills, 

And poets, too. 

TENNYSON. 



CHAPTER XXV 



HOW WRITERS SECURE EFFECT 

STUDY 299 
The Meaning of Effect in Composition 

Good actors and orators are able to exercise great 
influence over their audiences, not only holding atten- 
tion, but inspiring in succession feelings of awe, 
reverence, pity, indignation, and mirth. The degree 
of feeling varies ; sometimes it is slight and subdued, 
sometimes wildly enthusiastic. To some extent, a 
writer may secure the same effects with his readers, 
and it is interesting to study this aspect of his art. 
Consider the following: 

''The day is passing; evening brings with it an air of 
quiet repose. The Hght softens, the wind becomes a gentle 
breath imperceptible except for the occasional vibration of 
a frail leaf. The day birds have gone to rest; now and then 
the soft whistle of an owl is heard. A velvet-winged bat 
flits noiselessly here and there. Sir Henry's porch chair is 
very comfortable, the evening paper has fallen upon his lap, 
his pipe has gone out. He is thinking of the old, old days 
when life seemed all in the future, as it now seems all in the 
past." 

What is the general impression from reading these 
lines? Examine the paragraph sentence by sentence, 
word by word. Select the expressions that especially 

329 



330 STUDIES IX ENGLISH 

suggest restful quiet. Is there anything that im- 
pHes activity and noise ? Finally, try to state as fully 
and clearly as you can how the writer has secured 
this harmoniously quiet effect. 

Now study the following, noting the effect upon 
your own feelings as you read: 

"There was a shout, and looking down the avenue we 
saw a team attached to a carriage dashing furiously toward 
us. The driver's seat was empty, the reins flying; in the 
back seat was an elderly woman clasping two frightened, 
crying children. The horses seemed mad with terror, — eyes 
glaring, nostrils distended, ears lying flat, hoofs striking fire. 
They sw^ing to the right and the wheels graze a telegraph 
pole; then to the left, tearing the mudguards from an auto- 
mobile. They are nearing the bridge on which are a score of 
teams and half a hundred men, women and children. But 
see ! there comes a mounted policeman gaining rapidly upon 
them. Can he overtake them before they reach the bridge? 
It's a wild race — only a. hundred yards to the bridge — fifty — 
twenty, — ah, the officer is beside the carriage — his strong 
hand grasps the checkrein of the near horse — they slow up — 
swing rapidly round to the left and stop a little way down 
River street.'' 

Consider the effect of this runaway upon persons 
who saw it at close range. Does the writer make 
you see it? How does it affect your feelings? 
What words and phrases especially tend to excite 
the reader ? Are the sentences generally simple, com- 
pound, or complex? What difference does it make? 
Where do you find a rapid succession of ideas? 
Account for the punctuation in these parts. 



EVENING IN THE WOODS 331 

STUDY 300 
Evening in the Woods 
Study the following extract for effect : 

Gavin had walked quickly, and he now stood silent in the 
wood, his hat in his hand. In the moonlight the grass seemed 
tipped with hoar frost. Most of the beeches were already 
bare, but the shoots, clustering round them, Hke children at 
their mother's skirts, still retained their leaves red and brown. 
Among the pines these leaves were as incongruous as a 
wedding dress at a funeral. Gavin was standing on grass, 
but there were patches of heather within sight, and broom, 
and the leaf of the blueberry. Where the beeches had drawn 
up the earth with them as they grew, their roots ran this 
way and that, slippery to the feet and looking Hke disinterred 
bones. A squirrel appeared suddenly on the charred ground, 
looked doubtfully at Gavin to see if he was growing there, 
and then glided up a tree, where it sat eyeing him, and for- 
getting to conceal its shadow. Caddam was very still. At 
long intervals came from far away the whack of an ax on 
wood. Gavin was in a world by himself, and this might be 
someone breaking into it. The mystery of woods by moonlight 
thrilled the little minister 

The squirrel slid down the fir and was gone. The blows 
of the ax ceased. Nothing that moved was in sight. The 
wind that has its nest in trees was circling around with many 
voices that never rose above a whisper, and were often but 
the echo of a sigh. 

From "The Little Minister" — james m. barrie. 

As you read this, do you feel the stillness of the 
woods? Find what words or expressions make you 
feel it. This selection has a spirit, an atmosphere of 



332 STUDIES IN ENGLISH 

quiet. Perhaps you will need to read it several times 
to feel the spirit of it. 

When you feel the quiet, try to write of a quiet 
place you have enjoyed in the woods, in the orchard, 
or in the fields. Try to make the reader feel what 
you felt. 

STUDY 301 
Two Examples of Effect in Composition 

Turn to the story of "The English Lark and the 
Miners," page 306; read it all, noting especially the 
last paragraph. Discuss the effect produced and 
the means of securing it. 

Then read again "The Locksmith of the Golden 
Key," page 315, noticing the fine feeling that runs 
through the whole selection. Describe your own feel- 
ing after reading it. If possible, point out how 
Dickens secures this effect. 

STUDY 302 
References for Further Study 

Find other passages in books you know where 
special effects are produced in a marked way. There 
are several in this book ; for example in : 

'The Burial of Moses," page 182. 

"The Land of Pluck," page 200. 

"The King of the Golden River," page 213. 

'The Great Stone Face," page 205. 



REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY 333 

Other examples will be found in Essential Studies 
in English — Book One, especially: 

Fido's Little Friend, page 70. 

A Trip with the Carrier, page 79. 

The Wind in a Frolic, page 128. 

The Arab and His Steed, page 167. 

A Character Sketch, page 179. 

Winter's Herald, page 199. 

The Moonbeam's Story, page 209. 

Every good book has its distinctly effective pas- 
sages; the student must learn to find and appreciate 
them for himself. The poetry of Tennyson, Words- 
v^orth, Bryant, and Longfellow; the stories of Dick- 
ens, Irving, Hawthorne, Eugene Field, Mary Mapes 
Dodge, and Charles Dudley Warner; above all, the 
plays of Shakespeare, and portions of the Bible, 
abound in passages that should be studied by all who 
wish to acquire skill in appropriate and effective use 
of language. 



TO THE TEACHER OF "PRACTICAL 
ENGLISH" 

Except where otherwise indicated, the illustrative sentences 
and exercises in this book are designed to be written in full by 
the pupil. This should be rigidly required, since no other plan 
can so effectively impress the minds or affect the habits of the 
pupil. If it could be certain that the student would retain the 
book as his own property, it would be highly desirable that he 
should indicate, by underscoring or otherwise, the correct 
usage ; for then he would have in his hand a valuable book of 
reference. But if the book should be passed on to other hands, 
such underscoring would be, of course, unfortunate. This 
point must be left to the discretion of the teacher. 

Should the ''paper work" involved prove too great for the 
time the teacher has to devote to it, approximately as benefi- 
cial a result may be obtained by having the pupils exchange 
papers in the class and indicate errors. The further suggestion 
is made that, at the end of each chapter, the teacher should 
conduct an oral review of the exercises of the entire chapter ; 
and of course it will always prove helpful and stimulating 
to have the pupils prepare original exercises illustrating the 
principles discussed, and bring in examples of violation of cor- 
rect usage heard on the playground and elsewhere. When the 
book is finished it should be, then or later, thoroughly reviewed ; 
for it is practically impossible to drill too much or too insist- 
ently upon these vital points of usage. 



334 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 



CHAPTER I 



AGREEMENT OF PREDICATE WITH SUBJECT IN 

NUMBER 

PRINCIPLE: A verb must agree with its subject in 
person and number. 

Person. It is not necessary to dwell long on the agiee- 
ment of the verb with its subject in person, since the violation 
of this part of the rule is not among the common errors in 
English. We are not likely to say, for example, "I is going" 
or "He am coming." The first would be placing a subject 
in the first person with a verb in the third person ; the second, 
a subject in the third person with a verb in the first. Some- 
times, however, a real difficulty arises. Take a sentence where 
the subject is "Neither he nor I." "He" would require the 
form is, "I," the form am. In such cases, the rule is that 
the verb takes the person of the subject nearest it. So we 
should say, "Neither he nor I am satisfied" ; "Either you or 
I am responsible." This point will be referred to again in 
this chapter. 

Number. But the chief difficulty arises in the matter 
of the agreement in number; though even here it is limited 

335 



336 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

to the third person, singular number, of the present indicative. 
In all other cases (except in was and were, the past form of 
the verb "be") the singular and plural forms of the verb are 
the same. For example : he ran, you ran, they ran; he stayed, 
you stayed, they stayed; he will go, you will go, they will go, 
etc. So we could hardly make a mistake in these forms if 
we should try. But in the third person of the present indica- 
tive, the singular and plural forms are different. The singular, 
contrary to the general rule with nouns, is indicated by the 
addition of s, the plural, by its absence. Thus : the horse runs 
(singular) ; the horses run (plural). Even in the case of the 
copulative forms, is, was, and has, the .$• ending denotes the 
singular: Singular, is, plural, are; singular, wa^, plural, were; 
singular, has, plural, haz^e. It is with respect to this form of 
the verb, then, that the agreement of predicate with subject 
in number should be carefully watched. 

Sources of Difficulty. There are several sources of dif- 
ficulty in determining whether to use the singular or the plural 
verb. The chief ones are named and illustrated in this chapter. 

(1) The placing of a modifying or parenthetical phraso 
betv^een the subject and predicate. 

For example : 

The result of his investigations ivas important. 
He, together with his friends, was invited. 

The plural nouns, investigations and friends, coming so 
near to the predicates, tend to influence the speaker to put 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH Z2,7 

the verbs in the plural. But a moment's thought will show 
that the subject of the first sentence is result and of the sec- 
ond, he, and that in each case, therefore, the verb must be 
singular. This is effectively illustrated by throwing the inter- 
jected phrase into parenthesis and disregarding it in reading. 
Thus : 

The result (of his investigations) zvas important. 
He (together with his friends) was invited. 

The following sentences illustrate the same point. Read 
them carefully, and name the subject of each. 

His account of his varied experiences was interesting. 

The record of the day's proceedings was read. 

The beauties of the scene make no impression on him. 

The friends of the condemned man are making every effort to 

save him. 
Regard for the feelings of others tends to make friends. 
Mary and her sister were there. 
Mary, as well as her sister, was there. 
Mary, together with her sister, was there. 

EXERCISE 1 

Write the following sentences, supplying the proper words 
in the blanks: 

1. is, are: His description of the numerous beauties of 

the place . . . most vivid. 

2. is, are: The support of his friends ... a great 

consolation to him. 



338 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

3. is, are: The gestures of the excited orator 

far from graceful. 

4. is, are: The rapidity of his movements . 

much admired. 

5. is, are: The manufacture of toothbrushes 

increasing enormously. 

6. is, are: John, with his friend, . . . here. 

7. was, were: John, as well as his friend, 

present. 

8. was, were: Fame, together with wealth that reached 

into the millions, . . . his. 

9. was, were: A mixture of wisdom and folly . 

noticeable in their conversation. 

10. was, were: The orders of the several commanders 

carried out to the letter. 

11. has, have: The fame of his achievements . . 

gone before him. 

12. has, have: The resources of the bank . . . been 

severely taxed. 

13. has, have: The absence of large public buildings 

excited much comment. 

14. protects, protect: A row of sharpened stakes 

the house. 

15. carries, carry: The sons, as well as the father, 

heavy insurance. 

16. provides, provide: The breastwork of earth and stones 

. ample protection. 

17. makes, make: The spectacle of accumulated horrors 

. one shudder. 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 339 

IS. leads, lead: Neglect of reasonable precautions, added 
to a low state of the vital processes, naturally 
to serious trouble. 
19. exists, exist: The opportunity of a life time for profit- 
able investments in lands and mines now 
in many parts of the West. 
(2) Subjects plural in form and either singular or plural 
in meaning. 

Some of such nouns are properly used as cither singular or 
plural; as headquarters, measles, mumps, zvhereabouts. 

The General's headquarters zvas (zccrc) a mile from camp. 
His whereabouts is (are) unknown. 

A much greater number are singular or plural according to 
the sense in which they are used ; as means^ pains, alms, sta- 
tistics, acoustics, athletics, gymnastics, ethics, (esthetics, calis- 
thenics, economics, links (in golf), billiards, etc. 

Statistics is a dry subject. 

The statistics contained in the address zvcve convincing. 
The means zuas held to justify the end. 
His means zvcre exhausted. 

Infinite pains zvas taken to ekicidate the subject. 
His numerous pains zvcrc somewhat relieved by the medicine. 
Athletics is becoming an important feature of college life; the 
so-called "track athletics" are particularly enjoyable. 

Some nouns with the plural form may always be properly 
used as singular, as news, politics, civics, mathematics — though 



340 PRACTICAL EXQLISH 

both politics and mathematics are sometimes used by good 
writers, particularly in England, as plurals ; and some are 
always plural, as assets, tidings, bitters, nuptials, eaves, trou- 
sers, scissors, shears, proceeds, riches, suds, bellozvs, tongs, 
tzveezers, zvages, vitals, etc. 

Certain phrases, also plural m form, are clearly singular 
in meaning, and take a singular verb, as illustrated in the 
following sentences : 

A thousand dollars is a big price to pay. 

This ten years past has been a trying period. 

"Great Expectations" is a characteristic novel of Charles Dickens. 

EXERCISE 2 

1. was, were: The ethics of the situation . . . not 

considered. 

2. is, are: Ethics . . . defined as "the science of 

human duty." 

3. takes, take: Economics . . . account of the law 

of supply and demand. 

4. does, do: The economics of the system . . . not 

appeal to him. 

5. has, have: Athletics . . . become a prominent 

feature of college life within the last few years. 

6. appeals, appeal: Track athletics ... to the 

greatest number of students. 

7. places, place: Track athletics . . . heavy de- 

mands upon a student's time. 
8. makes, make. "Politics . . . strange bedfellows." 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 341 

9. is, are: Politics . . . the science and the art of 
government. 

10. is, are: Politics, like religion, . . . matters of 

faith. — Fronde. (Or, ''Politics, like religion, is a mat- 
ter of faith.") 

11. is, are: The new golf links ... a thing of 

beauty. 

12. was, were: The links . . . laid out beautifully. 

13. is, are: The acoustics of an auditorium ... an 

important consideration. 

14. was, were: The acoustics of the hall . . . not 

satisfactory. 

15. tends, tend: Mathematics . . . to strengthen the 

reasoning powers. 

16. was, were: Ten thousand dollars . . . willingly 

paid as a ransom. 

17. is, are: "Little Women" . . . one of the most 

widely read of children's books. 

(3) Collective cubjects. The familiar rule is that when 
such subjects have reference to the body or collection as a 
whole, they are singular in sense and take a singular verb ; 
but when they have reference to the individual persons or 
things that compose the body or collection, they are plural 
in sense and take a plural verb. A clear distinction exists, 
however, between two classes of collective nouns, illustrated 
on the one hand by such words as number, multitude, ma- 
jority, proportion, etc., and on the other by such words as 
committee, commission, jury, army, hoard, etc. The former 



342 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

do not represent so compact and well-defined a body as the 
latter, and they generally take a plural verb, while the latter 
generally take the singular. 

A multitude of the unemployed zvcre assembled there. 
A majority of those present zvcrc men. 
The commiittee zvas not yet ready to report. 
The jury finds for the defendant. 

But words of the former class (such as number, multitude, 
majority, etc.) take the singular verb when they plainly have 
reference to the body as a whole, and not to the individuals 
in it. 

The number present does not exceed twenty-five, 
' The majority expects to pass the bill. 
The minority enters its protest. 
The disorderly multitude zvas quieted in a moment. 

And words of the latter class (such as committee, board, 
council, jury, etc.) take the plural verb when they plainly 
have reference to the individuals composing the body. 

The jury zi'cre by no means of one opinion in the case. 
The committee present a majority and a minority report. 
The board zvere hopelessly divided in sentiment. 

After all, then, it is safe to follow the rule stated at the 
beginning of this section : that when the reference is to the 
collection as a whole, the noun is singular; when to the indi- 
vidual persons or things, it is plural. But doubt will some- 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 343 

times arise, and it is well to remember this suggestion : In 
words of the first class — majority, multitude, number, etc. — 
when in doubt, use the plural verb ; in words of the second 
class — committee, jury, board, etc. — when in doubt, use the 
singular verb. 

In collective subjects denoting a definite part, as half, two- 
thirds, etc;, when the noun following the preposition of is 
singular, the verb is also singular; when plural, the verb is 
plural. 

Three-fourths of the estate was given to the wife. 

Three-fourths of the proceeds zuere devoted to charity. 

EXERCISE 3 

1. was, were: A multitude of horsemen . . . seen 

in the distance. 

2. was, were: The multitude . . . speedily brought 

to order. 

3. prefers, prefer: The rest of the audience ... to 

remain. 

4. is, are : Two-thirds of the students in the district 

white. 

5. is, are: Two-thirds of the farm . . . for sale. 

6. was, were: Fully one-half of the passengers 

lost. 

7. submits, submit: The committee ... a unani- 

mous report. 

8. expects, expect: The board . . . to meet tomor- 

row. 



344 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

9. was, were: The city council, after a four hours' ses- 
sion, . . . more divided in opinion than at first. 

10. accepts, accept: The commission cordially 

the invitation. 

11. is, are: The public . . . invited to attend (is or 

are). 

12. was, were: The public . . . warned to avoid the 

weakened bridge. 

13. was, were: A large proportion of the passengers 

. Americans. 

14. was, were: A number of geese . . . seen flying 

southward. 

15. does, do: The number . . . not exceed twenty 

or thirty. 

16. declines, decline: The House of Representatnes 

to accept the Senate amendments. 

17. works, work: The Chamber of Commerce 

actively for the upbuilding of the city. 

18. was, were: The majority of the pupils 

boys. 

19. is, are : Half of the equipment . . . entirely use- 

less. 

20. was, were: Half of the weapons . . . found to 

be useless. 

21. was, were: A squad of soldiers . . . sent to the 

skirmish line. 
(4) The plurals of Anglicized foreign words. Those in 
most frequent use are the following: 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 



345 



Singular 


Foreign Plural 


English Plural 


addendum 


addenda 




alumnus 


alumni 




alumna 


alumnae 




analysis 


analyses 




apparatus 


apparatus 


apparatuses 


bacillus 


bacilli 




bacterium 


bacteria 




beau 


beaux 


\ 


cherub 


cherubim 


cherubs 


crisis 


crises 




crocus 


croci 


crocuses 


curriculum 


curricula 




datum 


data 




encomium 




• encomiums 


erratum 


errata 




focus 


foci 


focuses 


formula 


formulae 


formulas 


fulcrum 


fulcra 


fulcrums 


fungus 


fungi 


funguses 


genus 


genera 




genius 


genii 


geniuses 


hippopotamus 


hippopotami 


hippopotamuses 


ignoramus 




ignoramuses 


medium 


media 


mediums 


memorandum 


memoranda 




nostrum 




nostrums 


oasis 


oases 




panacea 




panaceas 



346 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 



Singular 


Foreign Phi) 


-al 


English Plural 


parenthesis 


parentheses 






phenomenon 


phenomena 






radius 


radii 




radiuses 


seraph 


seraphim 




seraphs 


stratum 


strata 






tableau 


tableaux 






terminus 


termini 






thesis 


^heses 








EXERCISE 4 





1. was, were: The phenomena of the night of November 

15 . . . widely observed. 

2. occupies, occupy: The addenda . . . nearly as 

much space as the original text. 

3. produces, produce: It is sometimes said that crises 

men. 

4. is, are: The curricula of the common schools 

prepared by an educational commission. 

5. was, were: Bacteria . . . found in countless 

numbers in the tainted food. 

6. was, were: The radii (radiuses) of the several circles 

. taken as the basis of his computation. 

7. was, were: The distinguished alumnus . . . in- 

vited to a seat on the platform. 

8. shows, show: The analysis . . . that a deadly 

poison was taken. 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 347 

9. admits, admit: The data . . . of no dispute. 

10. does, do : Even geniuses . . . not accomplish 

great things without toil. 

11. performs, perform: In the "Arabian Night", the genii 

miraculous feats. 

12. was, were: The memorandum which he handed me 

of great service. 

13. is, are: 1 1 is memoranda of the proceedings 

to be published. 

14. was, were: Strata of shale and gravel . . . next 

encountered. 

15. was, were: The tableaux . . . greatly enjoyed 

by the children. 

16. represents, represent: The tableau . . . the com- 

ing of spring. 

17. was, were: The apparatus which he used 

extremely simple. 

18. grow, grows : Fungi . . . in great profusion in 

the swamp. 

(5) Relative pronouns whose antecedents are not easily 
placed. As, 

He is one of those men who are always cheerful. 

Here, zvho is the subject of the subordinate clause. Its 
antecedent is men, not one, and the verb must therefore be 
plural. 

(6) Subjects connected by conjunctions. 

Singular subjects connected by and take a plural verb, 



348 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

except (1) when the subjects name one person or thing, 
(2) when they are preceded by each, every, and many a. 

The first three sentences folloziing illustrate the rule; the 
remaining ones, the exceptions. 

The sea and the shore are hidden from view. 

The brother and sister were loth to be separated. 

The moon, the stars, and the cloud zvcre reflected in the lake. 

His whole end and aim was to win applause. 

Each boy and girl was remembered. 

Every m.an and woman was notified. 

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. 

Singular subjects connected by or or nor, or by the correl- 
atives ''either-or" and ''neither-nor" take a singular verb. 
Thus : 

John or Arthur is likely to receive the prize. 
Either the cat or the dog causes trouble. 
Neither he nor his friend was present. 

In expressions of this sort, difficulty sometimes arises be- 
cause the subjects differ in either number or person. In such 
cases the number or person of the verb is generally controlled 
by the subject nearest it. As, 

Neither he nor his friends were present. 
Either you or I am to blame. 

In the last sentence it will be observed that the person 
also follows the subject nearest the verb. This is the difficulty 
spoken of in relation to person in the first part of this chap- 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 349' 

ter. The trouble lies in a defect in our language, and the 
only way to escape it in this and similar expressions is to 
change the form ; as, ''Either you are to blame or I am." 

Similarly, when each, either, and neither are used substan- 
ti^^ely as subjects, they are always singular and require sin- 
gular verbs. 

Each has performed his allotted task. 
John is preferred to James, but either is acceptable. 
Both of the men have worked faithfully, but neither has suc- 
ceeded. 

None is strictly singular, equivalent to no one, but good 
authority sanctions its use either as singular or plural. 

None but the brave deserves the fair. — Dryden. 
I called for my friends, but none of them zuere left. 

EXERCISE 5 

Illustrating (^) and (6) 

1. has, have: It was one of the worst storms that 

ever visited this country. 

2. makes, make: He is one of the men who 

money easily. 

3. has, have: He was the ablest lecturer that . 

ever come to our city. 

4. knows, know: He was one of those men who 

not the meaning of fear. 

5. has, have: She was one of the most attractive girls 

that . . . attended this school. 



350 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

6. was, were: He is the only one of the men who 

able to stand the strain. 

7. was, were: John and his friend . . . present. 

(Compare sentences 6 and 7, Exercise 1.) 

8. rises, rise : Honor and fame from no condition 

9. has, have: . . . either of you seen my book? 

10. has, have: Each of the soldiers . . . received a 

pension. 

11. has, have: Xeither of the murderers . . . been 

taken. 

12. is, are: Every one of the boys . . . willing to 

work. 

13. is, are: The gist and substance of the matter . 

as follows : 

14. confronts, confront: Imprisonment or death 

him. 

15. dismays, dismay: Neither poverty nor sickness 

him. 

16. dismays, dismay: Neither poverty nor chains 

him. 

17. was, were: The man, the woman, and the child 

present. 

18. was, were: Every man, woman, and child 

interested. 

19. is, are: Either John or his father ... at the 

house. 

20. was, were: Either he or his friends . , . respon- 

sible for the trouble. 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 351 

21. is, are, am: Neither he nor I . . . willing to go. 

22. was, were: Xeither he nor they . . . prepared. 

23. is, are: There . . . none that doeth good, no, 

not one. 

24. is, are: None of the class . . . there. 



CHAPTER TI 



THE NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE CASES OF 

PRONOUNS 

PRINCIPLES: 1. The subjects of finite verbs must be 
In the nominative case. 

2. The objects of verbs and prepositions must be in the 
objective case. 

3. The finite forms of the verb BE take after them the 
nominative case; the infinitive forms take the objective case, 
except where the infinitive is without an independent 
subject. 

The Seven Pronouns. In English, by loss of inflection, 
■nouns have the same form for the nominative and the objec- 
tive case ; consequently there is no possibility of error here. 
Take the two sentences : "I saw the dog" ; "The dog saw me." 
The word "dog" has the same form, though in the first sen- 
tence it is in the objective case, and in the second, the nomi- 
native. Not so with the pronoun. In the first sentence, the 
nominative form is "I", in the second the objective form is 
"me", though the same person is meant. It is the pronouns, 
therefore, which cause trouble; and the seven which have 
•different forms for the nominative and objective are as follows : 

352 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 353 

I (objective, me), 
we (objective, us). 
thou (objective, thee), 
he (objective, him), 
she (objective, her), 
they (objective, them), 
who (objective, whom). 

If we can learn beyond doubt where to use these different 
forms, we shall have stopped up the source of a multitude of 
errors. 

Nominative Case. Violations of the first principle laid 
down above, namely, that the subjects of finite verbs must be 
in the nominative case, are rare except among the ilhterate. 
"Him and me went to town" is an illustration. Expressions 
like "John and me were the first to arrive" are more common, 
but quite as bad. "Us girls were of the party" is a violation 
of the same rule, and expressions like it are not infrequent. 
In all of these sentences, the pronouns are subjects and should 
be in the nominative case. The sentences should read as fol- 
lows: ''He and / went to town"; ''John and / were the first 
to arrive"; "We girls were of the party." 

Objective Case. But the second principle — the objects 
of verbs and prepositions must be in the objective case — is 
continually violated as to these seven pronouns, even by those 
who cannot fairly be called illiterate, and it should be most 
carefully studied and watchfully observed. "He left it to 
Charles and / to decide." "He told Charles and / to come." 



354 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

Such expressions are continually used, though the speakers 
would not think of saying ''He left it to /," or "He told /." 
In the first case, the preposition "to" governs both objects, 
and in the second, the verb "told" governs both, and so in 
both cases it should be "Charles and me." 

Illustrations of correct usage under this rule, Avith respect 
to these pronouns (except who), are the following: 

There is a perfect understanding between you and me. 
He sent my brother and me on the errand, 
The teacher gave good advice to him and me. 
". . . if aught but death part thee and me." 
No friendship existed between them and us. 
He treate4 both them and iis fairly. 
I expected to see you and her there. 
I looked for him and her in vain. 

The "-Self" Forms. The pronouns myself, hijnself, etc.. 
are very frequently used erroneously. The "-self" forms 
should be used only (1) for emphasis; as, "I attended to the 
matter myself, "He himself answered the call'' ; or (2) re- 
flexively ; as, "He injured only himself.'' It is ungrammat- 
ical, and objectionable in every way, to say: "They sent 
for John and myself ; "He and myself undertook the enter- 
prise." The correct expressions are : "They sent for John 
and me" ; "He and / undertook the enterprise." These "-self" 
forms are frequently resorted to in order to escape the prob- 
lem of choosing between the proper and the improper forms 
of the personal pronouns. 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 355 

EXERCISE 6 

1. he, him: . . . and I came from the same direc- 

tion. 

2. he, him: The teacher gave a sharp rebuke to . 

and me. 

3. he, him: I have great confidence in Mary and 

4. he, him: John and . . . the committee com- 

pletely overlooked. , 

5. he, him: John and . . . completely overlooked 

the second question. 

6. he, him: I sav^ the v/retched man, . . . who, 

made all the trouble. 

Note : Words in apposition are in the same case. 

7. he, him: . . . that has the highest grade I will 

reward. 

8. he, him: The man followed you and 

closely. 

9. he, him: His father gave John and ... a val- 

uable present. 

10. I, me: Please let Lucy and . . . go to the lec- 

ture. 

11. I, me: Lucy and . . . have received permission 

to go. 

12. I, me: John and . . . will surely be there. 

13. I, me: You will surely see John and . . . there. 

14. I, me: . . . and my servant occupied the suite. 

15. I, me: My friend and . . . are traveling to- 

,gether. 



356 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

16. I, me: If they had given John and ... a chance 

we should have won. 

17. I, me, myself: The difference between you and 

. is this. 

18. I, me, myself: The teacher complimented both you 

and . 

19. I, me: He rendered valuable assistance to you and 

20. I, me: You and . . . rendered valuable assist- 

ance to him. 

21. I, me: The man saw her and . . . coming. 

22. she, her: This is a matter of great concern to you and 

23. she, her: You and . . . are greatly concerned in 

this matter. 

24. she, her: It was a godsend to Mary and ... 

25. she, her: Santa Claus remembered you and 

handsomely. 

26. she, her: You will have to choose between Clara and 

27. we, us: . . . girls had a good time. 

28. we, us: He invited father and . . . children to 

visit him. 

29. we, us : It was a matter of great astonishment to 

. . . girls. 

30. we, us, ourselves: Between them and . . . there 

arose a heated discussion. 

31. we, us: Few were better contented than 

32. we, us: Our friends, as well as . . . were left. 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 357 

33. we, us: Our instructors are older and wiser than 

34. they, them: He gave high praise to you and . 

35. they, them: . . . that obey me I will honor. 

36. they, them: Both . . . and we misunderstood 

the instructions. 
2>7 . they, them: Between you and ... I had my 

hands full. 
38. they, them: If we do this thing, we shall be no better 

than 

Who and Whom. Exactly the same principles are in- 
volved in the use of zvho and whom. Such expressions as 
"Who did you send for?" ''Who are you working for?" are 
constantly heard, when the speaker, if he should turn the 
sentences about, would certainly not say : ''For who did you 
send?" "For who are you working?" All of these sentences 
are correct, if zvhom is substituted for who: "Whom did 
you send for?" "For whom did you send?" "Whom are you 
working for?" "For whom are you working?" Similar illus- 
trations are the following: 

Whom are you looking for? 
Whom did they elect? 
Whom are you playing with? 
Whom shall we send on this errand? 
To whom shall we appeal now? 

Nominative Form. But while it is very important to 
use the objective form whom in such sentences as those just 
given, there is sometimes a tendency, equally to be avoided, 



358 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

to use the objective when the nominative form is required. 
Some persons, when they first make the acquaintance of whom, 
are incHned to discard who altogether. Take the sentences: 
"Who did you say he is?" ''He is a man zvho, I am sure, can 
be trusted." In the first, zvho is the predicate nominative of 
is, in the second, it is the subject of the dependent clause; and 
so in both cases it is properly in the nominative. By chang- 
ing the sentences slightly, we may properly use the objective 
form; thus: ''Whom did you say you saw?" ''He is a man 
whom, I am sure, you can trust." 

Compounds. The same rule applies to the compounds 
whoever and whomsoever. "You may give it to whomever 
(or whomsoever) you please." In this sentence, whomever 
(or whomsoever) is the object of the preposition to. But 
take the sentence, "You may give it to whoever will take it." 
Here whoever is not the object of to, but the subject of zvill 
take. The object of to is the whole clause, "whoever will 
►take it," and of that clause zuhoever is the subject. This dis- 
tinction should be very carefully noted, as it is the source 
of much difficulty. Here is a sentence quoted from a maga- 
zine of this country devoted to literary criticism : "This is 
left for the benefit of whomever may desire it." It should 
read whoever. 

EXERCISE 7 

gave you this information? 
did the Governor appoint? 
am I indebted to for this favor? 
are vou s^oins: with? 



1. 


who, 


whom: 


2. 


who, 


whom : 


3. 


who, 


whom: 


4. 


who, 


whom : 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 



359 



10. 



who, whom : 
who, whom : 
who, whom : 
who, whom: 
the place? 
who, whom: 



do men say that I am? 
They did not tell me ... it was. 
do they believe me to be? 
do you think is a good man for 



He is 



man 



though 



all 



others falter, will stand firm. 



who, whom: 
position? 

11. who, whom: 

12. who, whom: 

tion? 

13. who, whom: 

chosen. 

14. who, whom: 

good. 

15. who, whom: 

16. who, whom: 



do YOU recommend for this 



are you working for now? 
shall we send to the conven- 



Send him 



Send him 



the people have 



can do the most 



does he look like? 
shall I give this to? 

17. whoever (whosoever), whomever (whomsoever) : Give 

the warning to . . . you meet. 

18. whoever (whosoever), whomever (whomsoever: Lay 

the blame upon . . . was responsible for the 
accident. 

19. whoever (whosoever), whomever (whomsoever) : Lay 

the blame upon the one responsible for the accident, 

he may be. 

Nominative after Finite Forms of "Be." The first part 

of Principle 3, namely, that the finite forms of the verb 

''be" take after them the nominative case, is another rule 



360 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

which is constantly violated and to which special attention 
should be given. By ''finite forms" are meant all forms ex- 
cept the infinitives ''to be" and "to have been." Therefore 
under this rule all such forms as am, was, were, will be, might 
he, might have been, etc., take the nominative form after 
them. Thus, "I am he'' "it was he,'' "those are they," "it 
will be he," "it might be she," "it might have been they" are 
correct forms. The safe rule to keep in mind is, that all 
forms of this verb, except "to be" and "to have been," take 
after them the nominative. 

After Infinitive Forms of "Be." According to the sec- 
ond part of Principle 3, the infinitive forms "to be" and "to 
have been" take after them the objective case, except where 
the infinitive is without an independent subject. The sub- 
jects of infinitives are in the objective case, and this is the 
reason that the following pronouns also take that case. Take 
the two sentences : "I believe it to be her" ; "I know it to 
have been her." Both "it" and "her" in each sentence, are 
in the objective case. But in the sentence, "It is believed to 
be he," the infinitive has no independent subject, and "he" 
is therefore in the nominative. 

EXERCISE 8 

1. I, me: He declared it was . 

2. I, me: He declared it to be . 

3. I, me: It was . . . who did the deed, but he 

punished both John and 

4. I, me: He believed it was . . . who attacked 

him. 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 361 

5. I, me: Notwithstanding my denial, he beheved it to 

be . . . 

6. I, me: If I were he, or if he were ... it would 

be different. 

7. I, me: He said it was John and . . . (Compare: 

He said he saw John and . . .). 

8. I, me : There were present John, Mary, and 

(Compare. They presented John,^ Mary and 

. . .)• 

9. he, him: I thought it was . , . whom I saw. 

10. he, him: I believed it to be . . . at first, but 

later I became convinced that it could not be 

11. he, him: If it had been ... it would have been 

all right. 

12. he, him: John was commonly supposed to be 

of whom the story was told. (Note: Sentence 12 
is used only for illustration ; its form is not recom- 
mended. ''The one" or "the person" should be used 
in the blank, instead of the pronoun.) 

13. he, him: It might have been . . . for aught I 

know. 

14. she, her: Was it ... ? 

15. she, her: Even if it had been . . ., we should 

have said the same. 

16. she, her: Perhaps it was . . . whom you en- 

countered. 

17. she, her: Well, it might possibly have been 



362 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

18. she, her: But you did not believe it to be . . ., 

did you? 

19. she, her: I am now convinced that it w^as 

20. we, us : He thought it was 

21. we, us: If it had been . . . this would not have 

happened. 

22. we, us: He saw the company at a distance and be- 

lieved it to be . 

23. they, them: It was . . . who did it, and they 

must suffer the penalty. 

24. they, them: Are these men ... of whom you 

spoke? 

25. they, them: Could it have been . . . who did 

this thing? 

26. they, them: Most people believe it to have been 



CHAPTER III 



AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS WITH ANTECED- 
ENTS IN NUMBER 

PRINCIPLE: A pronoun must agree with its anteced- 
ent in number, gender, and person. 

Agreement in Gender. We may almost dismiss with a. 
word the violation of this rule so far as it relates to agree- 
ment of pronoun and antecedent in gender, since it is rare 
except among those who lack the most elementary knowledge 
of grammar. For example, take the sentence : ''Every man 
was in his place." No one would think of saying, ''Every 
man was in her (or its) place." A difficulty arises, however, 
when the antecedent has reference to singular nouns of dif- 
ferent genders. For instance : "Every man and woman was 
in his or her place." This is correct, and strictly according 
to the rule ; but it is awkward, and to be avoided. "Every 
man was in his place, every woman in hers," expresses the 
same shade of thought, and is preferable. Confusion some- 
times arises in regard to certain nouns, naturally neuter, but 
which common usage personifies and thus makes either mas- 
culine or feminine, as sun, moon, ship, England, America, 
etc. "The sun sent forth hu most piercing beams." "Eng- 
land justly vaunts herself of her navy." It is sufficient to 

363 



364 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

say that except in poetical or rhetorical usage it is quite 
proper (though not better usage) to treat such nouns as 
neuter, and to use the neuter pronouns ; as, ''The moon is in 
its fourth quarter" ; "The ship went steadily on its course." 
Agreement in Person. Violations of this part of the rule 
are more frequent than of that requiring agreement in gender. 
They most frequently occur in a careless drifting from the 
third to the first or second person in a sentence or paragraph. 
Take a familiar example : 

"Mrs. Russell has received Mrs. St. John's kind note asking her to 
dine on Thursday. I take great pleasure in accepting and beg 
to thank you for your courteous invitation." 

Here the pronoun "V\ in the first person, refers to "Mrs. 
Russell", third person, and the pronouns "you" and "your", 
second person, refer to "Mrs. St. John", third person. The 
note should read : 

"Mrs. Russell has received Mrs. St. John's kind note asking her 
to dine on Thursday. She takes great pleasure in accepting, 
and begs to thank Mrs. St. John for her courteous invitation." 

Or, 

'T have received your kind note asking me to dine on Thursday. 
I take great pleasure in accepting, and beg to thank you for your 
courteous invitation." 

Another illustration: "One would not think of doing it 
unless your fife depended upon it." "One" is in the third 
person, "your" in the second. "His" or "one's" should be 
used instead of "your." In passing, it may be remarked that 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 365 

it Is a matter of taste whether **his" or "one's" should be 
used when "one" is the subject. "One should follow where 
one's (or his) conscience leads." The use of "his", in such 
a connection, is certainly preferable to a tiresome repetition 
of "one's." 

Agreement in Number. But it is in the matter of the 
agreement in number that we encounter another exceedingly 
fruitful source of errors in speech and writing — not confined 
by any means, either, to the illiterate. Such expressions as 
these are heard on every hand : 

Ever3'body reported that they had had a good titne. 
Every one present acted as if they were enjoying themselves. 
A person cannot always do just as they wish to do. 
Every one was following their own devices. 

These should read : 

Everybody reported that he had had a good time. 
Every one present acted as if he were enjoying himself. 
A person cannot always do just as he wishes to do. 
Every one was foHowing his own de\'ices. 

In each case, the antecedent ("everybody", "every one", 
*'a person") is singular and so the pronoun must be singular. 
It is to be noted that this pronoun is he, his, him, or himself, 
when persons are referred to, even though the reference be to 
persons of both sexes. Our language is defective in this 
respect, and we are therefore compelled to use these masculine 
pronouns, when members of both sexes are referred to to- 
gether, as standing for mankind in general. Thus, we should 



366 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

say, ''Every student in this institution is doing his work faith- 
fully", though more than half of the students were girls ; but, 
of course, if we were saying the same thing of a girls' school, 
we should say : ''Every student in this institution is doing her 
work faithfully." 

These mistakes center around the third person, singular 
and plural, of the personal pronouns and their reflexive, or 
"-self", forms. The following declension should therefore be 
held in mind: 

Singular Plural 

Nom. he, she, it they 

Poss. his, her (hers), its their (theirs) 

Obj. him, her, it them 

Singular Antecedents. These pronouns are most frequently 
misused in connection with such antecedents as "everybody", 
"anybody", "any one", "every one", "either", "neither", "a 
person", "each", "every", "no one", "man after man", etc., 
used alone as substantives or in connection with nouns as 
modifiers. They are correctly used in the following sentences : 

Everybody expressed his approval of the sentiment. 

Anybody could do that if he would. 

Any one who cares to may have his name registered. 

Every one must win on his own merits. 

Each was worthy of the honor he received. 

No one was excused on account of his youth. 

Man after man entered his protest. 

Has either of them finished his work? 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 367 

Neither of them was excused from Jiis class. 
Neither John nor Charles realized his wish. 

Note : Either and neither always refer to one of two, and 
it is incorrect to use them when more are referred to. Any, 
anyone, and no one should be used for a greater number. 
"Has either of you (two) left his book?" "Have any of you 
(more than two) seen my cloak?" "Has any one of you 
(more than two) found my book?" * 

Number of Antecedents. It is now necessary to recall 
some of the rules given in Chapter I, relating to singular and 
plural subjects; for the number of the pronoun depends upon 
its antecedent, just as the number of the verb depends upon 
its subject. This will also involve a repetition of some things 
already learned in this chapter. The rules v/ith which we are 
now concerned are the following: 

1. Singular subjects connected by and are followed by a 
plural pronoun, except (1) when the subjects name one per- 
son or thing, (2) when they are preceded by each, every, 
and many a. In the following examples, the first sentence 
illustrates the rule, the others illustrate the exceptions. 

Arthur and James will resume their work Monday. 

The secretary and treasurer (one person) has resigned his office. 

Each man and boy received his full portion. 

Every nook and corner was filled to its full capacity. 

Many a man regrets the wasted opportunities of his youth. 

2. Singular subjects connected by the correlatives either-or 
and neither-nor take a singular pronoun. Thus: 



368 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

Neither Arthur nor James will resume his work. 

Either the judge or the clerk must affix his signature to the order. 

3. Collective nouns are represented by a singular pronoun 
when they refer to the collection as a whole, and by a plural 
pronoun when they refer to the persons or things composing 
the collection. As, 

The jury was unanimous in its verdict. 

The jury were divided in their deliberations. 

The majority of those present left their seats. 

The minority (of a legislative assembly) recorded its protest. 

The Board then issued its ultimatum. 

4. Some words, plural in form, are singular or plural ac- 
cording to meaning or to usage (Chapter I, Page 17). A 
few illustrations of the correct use of pronouns with such 
words are given in the following sentences : 

When at length the tidings came, they were received with joy. 

If you must have the measles, please don't give tJiem to me. 

His statistics were dry, and I took no interest in them. 

Mathematics was hard for him, but he studied it faithfully. 

None is so poor that he cannot respond to this call. 

The fact is, none of them could help themselves. 

When you have finished ''Hard Times," please return it. 

EXERCISE 9 

1. his, their: Every one was busy getting . . . lug- 
gage ready. 



PRACTICAL Ex\GLISH 369 

2. his, their: Everybody was intent upon . . . own 

interests. 

3. his, their: All men must carve out . . . own 

fortune (fortunes). 

4. his, their: Every man is the architect of . . . 

own fortune. 

5. his, their, one's: One's success will be proportionate 

to . . . labor. 

6. his, their: Has (have) either of the boys written 

exercise? 

7. his, their: Neither of my friends explained 

absence. 

8. his, their: Have (has) any of these men returned to 

. homes? (home) 

9. his, their: A person's surroundings have much to do 

with . . . happiness. 

10. his, their: All of the students of this class thoroughly 

prepare . . . lessons. 

11. his, their: Either of these men would give 

whole fortune for the office. 

12. his, their: Any of the students would have lent 

. aid gladly. 

13. her, their: Any one of the girls would have risked 

own health to prevent the accident. 

14. her, their: Every woman present pledged . 

support. 

15. he, they: No one was found who would say that 

favored the scheme. 

16. he, they: Let every one talk as long as . . . can. 



370 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

17. he, they: Every one of the company declared that 

had a good time. 

18. he, they: Everybody ought to take this trip if 

can possibly do so. 

19. he, they: All of them did exactly what 

wished to do. 

20. he, they: No one should come unless ... is 

(are) invited. 

21. she, they: Every lady present acted as if . 

were enjoying herself (themselves). 

22. he, they: Man after man arose and declared that 

would never support the measure. 

23. he, one, they: If one stops to think seriously, 

will hesitate to take this step. 

24. himself, themselves: All of the students conducted 

. properly. 

25. himself, themselves: Every one of the boys considered 

equal to the task. 

26. himself, themselves : Nobody should consider . . . 

entitled to special consideration. 

27. its, their: Every one of the suggestions was considered 

on . . . own merits. 

28. it, them: He paid fifty dollars for the services; but he 

regarded . . . well spent. 

29. it, them: Have you read "The Reveries of a Bache- 

lor"? Yes, and I think . . . delightful. 

30. its, their: The Commission found . . . duties 

most arduous. 



PRACTICAL EXGLISH 371 

31. its, their: The Arctic party held on . . . way 

undaunted. 
Z2. its, their: About two-thirds of the mob howled 
. disapproval of this suggestion. 

33. its, their: Three-fourths of the farm had lost . 

fertility through careless treatment. 

34. itself, themselves: A minority of those present took 

it upon ... to direct the proceedings. 

Z'i.- its, their: The city council was left without funds 
to carry out . . . plans. 

Z6. it, they: The ethics of the situation is (are) not clear; 
but . . . must be considered. 

Z7 . it, they: Whatever may be said of athletics, 
promote (promotes) college spirit. 

Z'^. its, their: The Board gave . . . undivided sup- 
port to the President. 

39. her, their: The black cow and the white one escaped 

from . . . enclosure. 

40. her, their: The black and white cow escaped from 

enclosure. 

41. her, their: The black cow, as well as the white one, 

escaped from . . . enclosure. 

42. himself, themselves : He, together with the other two 

candidates, presented . . . for admission. 



CHAPTER IV 



CERTAIN PLURALS AND POSSESSIVES 

PRINCIPLE. The plurals of nouns are formed regularly 
by the addition of "s" or '*es"; irregularly, by a change in 
the form of the word. 

The following may be given as illustrations : 



Singular 


Plural 


boy 


boys 


girl 


girls 


man 


men 


woman 


women 


child 


children 


fox 


foxes 


valley 


valleys 


lady 


ladies 


potato 


potatoes 


cameo 


cameos 


wife 


wives 


penny 


pennies (pence) 


brother 


brothers (brethren) 


Englishman 


EngHshmen 


German 


Germans 


brother-in-law 


brothers-in-law 




372 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 373 



Singxilar 




Plural 


brigadier- 


-general 


brigadier-generals 


die 




dies (dice) 


court-martial 


courts-martial 


deer 




deer 


quail 




quails or quail 


George 




Georges 


Mary 




Marys 


Charles 




Charleses 


Jones 




Joneses 


Dickens 




Dickenses 


Edwards 




Edwardses 


PJurns 




Burnses 



The Apostrophe. It may be taken for granted that the 
student understands that the apostrophe is the sign of the 
possessive case. The common errors in the use of these 
plurals and possessives arise, first, from lack of care in dis- 
tinguishing between the possessive singular and the possessive 
plural ; second, from a tendency to use the sign of possession 
in mere plurals ; and third, from an apparent disinclination 
to pluralize or to use the proper possessive forms of certain 
proper nouns ending in s or an s-sound. 

Let us take the same list of words and give their plurals 
and possessives : 

Possessive 
Singular Plural Sing. Possessive Plu. 

boy boys boy's boys' 

girl girls . girl's girls' 

man men man's men's 



374 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 







Possessiz'e 




Singular 


Plural 


Sing. 


Possessk'c Flu. 


woman 


women 


woman's 


women's 


child 


children 


child's 


children's 


fox 


foxes 


fox's 


foxes' 


valley 


valleys 


valley's 


valleys' 


lady 


ladies 


lady's 


ladies' 


potato 


potatoes 


potato's 


potatoes' 


cameo 


cameos 


cameo's 


cameos' 


wife 


wives 


wife's 


wives' 


penny 


pennies 


penny's 


pennies' 




(pence ) 




(pence's) 


brother 


brothers 


brother's 


brothers' 




(brethren) 




(brethren's) 


Englishman 


Englishmen 


Englishman's 


Englishmen's 


German 


Germans 


German's 


Germans' 


brother-in- 


brothers-in- 


brother-in- 


brothers-in- 


law 


law 


law's 


law's 


brigadier- 


brigadier- 


brigadier- 


brigadier- 


general 


generals 


general's 


generals' 


die 


dies (dice) 


die's 


dies' (dice's) 


court- 


courts- 


court- 


courts- 


martial 


martial 


martial's 


martial's 


deer 


deer 


deer's 


deers' 


quail 


quails or quai 


1 quail's 


quails' 


George 


Georges 


George's 


Georges' 


Mary 


Marys 


Mary's 


Marys' 


Charles 


Charleses 


Charles's 


Charleses' 


Jones 


Joneses 


Jones's 


Joneses' 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 



375 



Singular 
Dickens 
Edwards 
Burns 
Xerxes ■ 



Plural 
Dickenses 
Edwardses 
rUirnses 

Erom tl 



Possessive 

Sing. Possessive Phi. 

Dickens's Dickenses' 

Edwards's Edwardses' 

Hurns's Burnses' 
Xerxes' 

ather the followinof con- 



Conclusions, i^rom tnis we _ 
elusions : , 

1. That the possessive singular is always formed by add- 
ing the apostrophe and s ('s), unless euphony forbids, in 
which case the apostrophe alone is added. By "euphony" is 
meant a sound pleasing to the ear. 

2. That the possessive plural is formed by placing the 
apostrophe after the final s when the plural is so formed, 
and before it when it is formed otherwise. But it is to be 
noted that when the singular and plural are the same, as in 
the case of "deer," above given, the apostrophe is placed after 
the s in the possessive plural, in order to distinguish it from 
the possessive singular. 

3. That straight plurals (nominative and objective) should 
be written without the apostrophe, and written in full. 

We are now^ prepared to give illustrations, still using some 
of the words in the foregoing lists : 

The boy's hat was at last found. 

The hoys' and the girls' dormitories were widely separated. 
Men's, hoys', and children's clothing was kept for sale. 
Foxes are numerous in Englishmen s hunting preserves. 
Foxes' tracks were plainly visible in the soft earth. 



376 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

The court-martial' s proceedings were conducted secretly. 

He took a three months' vacation. 

He wrote during the reign of the Georges. 

The Joneses were there in force. 

Mr. Jones's mill was burned. 

The Joneses' mill was burned. 

Dickens's works will never lose their charm for me. 

Bring me a copy of Burns's poems. 

Xerxes' army was overcome by the Greeks. 

Euphony. In the first conclusion stated above, the 
phrase, "unless euphony forbids," should be observed. Take 
such a word as "Xerxeses." It affects the ear unpleasantly 
to use either the possessive "Xerxes's" or the plural 
''Xerxeses" ; so we use "Xerxes' " for the possessive and get 
along without the plural. Similarly, we say ''for conscience' 
sake," "for goodness' sake," etc. But there is nothing unpleas- 
ant about "Jones's" or "Joneses" ; "Dickens's" or "Dickenses" ; 
"Barnes's" or "Barneses" ; "Lawrence's" or "Lawrences." So 
the rule should be strictly followed, both as to the possessive 
and the plural, if euphony does not forbid. In the case of 
possessives unpleasant to the ear, the difficulty may generally 
be avoided by the use of of with the objective case ; as. "the 
tragedies of Sophocles." "the labors of Hercules." 

"Of" Instead of the Possessive. According to present 
usage, of with the objective case is generally used instead 
of the possessive when reference is made to a thing without 
Hfe ; as, "the progress of the operation," not "the operation's 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH Zll 

progress." There are, however, a number of familiar excep- 
tions to this rule: ''a month's vacation," "a day's journey," 
''the law's delay," "at my wit's end," etc. In this connection, 
too, it may be observed that sometimes both of and the 
apostrophe are used, as in the phrases, "a friend of my 
father's," '"'a play of Shakespeare's" — meaning, "one of my 
father's friends," "one of the, plays of Shakespeare." But it 
is apparent that we could not properly say, "the friends of 
my father's" or "the plays of Shakespeare's." These collo- 
quial phrases will be readily recognized, but the rule is other- 
wise, and should be kept in mind. 

Special Instances. The use of certain special plurals 
and possessives will be better illustrated, perhaps, by the 
following sentences than by trying to state specific rules : 

Put in two cupfuls of flour. 

Bring me two cups full of water. (Two cups.) 
The heirs-apparent escaped from the would be assassin. 
A convention of attorney-generals was held recently. 
A number of brigadier-generals were present. 
The Drs. Brown (or the Dr. Browns) were in attendance. 
The Messrs. Martin are well known citizens. 
There are two Dr. Browns and two Mr. Martins in town. 
The sisters-in-law attended the reception. 
The two Mrs. Smiths sat at the same table. 

The Misses Brown (or the Miss Browns) were unable to be present. 
The Englishmen, the Germans, and the Frenchmen conversed 
amicablv tooether. 



378 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

EngLind was conquered in 1066 b\^ the Normans. 

The Mussiilinans fell back before the advancing foe. 

I do not wish to take anybody else's place (not anybody's else). 

His clothes were made at Clark the tailor's. 

He trades at Marsh and Bryant's store. 

Possessive Case of Pronouns. It is not uncommon to 
see the possessive case of the personal pronouns written with 
the apostrophe : "it's," ''her's," "your's," "our's," "their's." 
This is incorrect. These forms express possession without the 
apostrophe, and it should be omitted ; thus, ''its Hf e" ; "The 
book was hers" ; ''yours truly" ; "they are ours" ; "it is theirs/' 
"It's" is properly used where the apostrophe indicates an 
abbreviation of "it is"; as, "It's a pity he could not come." 

EXERCISE 10 

The singular form (iiominatii'e or objective) is given in 
the margin. In zvriting the sentences, supply in the blanks 
the possessives singular or plural and the plurals, as indicated 
by the sense. 

1. commander-in-chief: The tw^o . . . met betAveen 

the lines. 

2. father-in-law: His . . . health was very much 

impaired. 

3. court-martial: The . , . finding was afifirmed by 

the President. 

4. sister-in-law: Her . . . w^ere detained by tlie 

storm. 

5. Miss Benton: The . . . w^ere unable to attend the 

reception. 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 379 

6. Mrs. Barnes: The two . . . were warm friends. 

7. George: Political life was very corrupt in the time of 

the . 

8. Charles : The . . . ruled Sweden for many years. 

9. Charles: The Protectorate was between the reigns of 

the two 

10. Charles: . . . early education was neglected. 

11. Jones: The . . . are most interesting people. 

12. Curtis: The . . . are enjoying a visit from their 

cousins. 

13. Curtis: The . . . cousins are paying them a visit. 

14. Davis: Mr. . . . talk was greatly enjoyed. 

15. Adams: The . . were at the party. 

16. Stebbins: The . . . are going to the mountains. 

17. Burns: He could repeat many of . . . poems. 

18. Dickens: He purchased . . . complete works. 

19. Keats: . . . ''Endymion" was harshly criticised. 

20. fox: The . . . pace was too rapid for the dogs. 

21. wolf: The . . . skins were carefully removed. 

22. boy: Dr. Arnold conducted a famous 

school. 

23. boy, girl: . . . and . . . playthings w^ere 

numerous. 

24. boy, man: . . . and . . . clothing for sale 

here. 

25. woman: The Federation of . . . Clubs met in 

Boston. 

26. woman: An appropriation was made for a ". • . 

Building"/' 



380 PRACTICAL EXGLISH 

27. lady, gentleman: . . . and . . . shoes for 

sale here. 

28. witness: The . . . command of himself was 

wonderful. 

29. witness: The . . . (more than one) statem.ents 

could not be questioned. 

30. its, it's: . . . life was short and troubled. 

31. its, it's: . . . high time for us to go. 

32. its, it's: I do not see . . , application to the 

case in point. 

33. its, it's: I think . . . a plain case. 

34. Smith and Gordon: They taught . . . system of 

bookkeeping. 



CHAPTER V 



THE POSSESSIVE CASE BEFORE VERBALS IN 

"ING" 

PRINCIPLE: A limiting noun or pronoun before a 
verbal ending in "ing" (gerund) should be in the possessive 
case. 

Do you object to John's (not John) taking the book? 
He was not averse to my (not me) accepting the position. 

This particular form of nouns ending in "ing" is called by 
grammarians the gerund. In the first sentence given above, 
"taking" is the object of the preposition "to," but it also has 
an object, "book." It partakes, therefore, of the nature of 
a noun and of a verb. It must be distinguished from a m.ere 
noun ending in "ing," as in the sentence, "Her playing was 
delightful" ; and also from the participle in "ing," as in the 
sentence, "I saw him sitting under the tree." 

Objective or Possessive. Whether the possessive or the 
objective is to be used before a verbal in "ing" is deter- 
mined by the sense. Take the two sentences : 

Think of me playing '"The -Moonlight Sonata." 
' Think of my playing 'The jMoonlight Sonata" ! 

The difference in meaning is apparent at a glance. In the 
first sentence, "playing" is a participle; in the second, a gerund. 

381 



382 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

A safe rule is to use the possessive when the idea of posses- 
sion is indicated, or, as the rule states it, when it is a liniitin,/ 
noun or pronoun. Or, to make it still more plain, if you are 
thinking chiefly of the person, use the objective; if you arc 
thinking chiefly of zvhat he is doing., use the possessive. 
Additional examples will illustrate this distinction : 

Imagine Howard riding a donkey. 

I protested against Hozvard's riding the donkey. 

I always remembered him gesticulating wildly. 

I laughed at his gesticulating so wildly. 

I see no objection to yotir going to Boston. 

The boys' parents objected to their taking part in athletics. 

I was not surprised at its going astray. 

**This" and "Each." These words are used before verbals 
in "ing" without change of form because they have no inflec- 
tion. One cannot say "this's" or "each's." So it is correct 
to say, ''I object to this being done"; "I insist upon each 
doing his part." 

EXERCISE 11 

1. John, John's: AMiat do you think of . . . taking 

this course? 

2. James, James's : He was bent upon . . . going to 

college. 

3. me, my: Do you remem])er . . . looking at it so 

longingly ? 

4. me, my: Remember . . . looking longingly to- 

wards home. 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 383 

5. me, my: What do you say to . . . dropping this 

study ? 

6. me, my: He objected to . . . having an}'thing 

to say. 

7. him, his: I was not opposed to . . . coming 

here. 

8. him, his : I could not prevent . . . coming. 

9. them, their: I did not object to . , . raising the 

question, but to . . . treating it as they did. 

10. us, our: What is to prevent . . . participating 

in the discussion? 

11. You, your: I see no objection to . . . being 

present. 

12. you, your: . . . taking part under the circum- 

stances will be criticised. 

13. it, its: I liked the address but I objected to . . . 

consuming so much time. 

14. it, its: I did not object to the task, but to . . . 

being forced upon me. 

15. that, that's: I forgot about . . . being there. 



CHAPTER VI 



THE USE OF CERTAIN IRREGULAR VERBS 

Regular and Irregular. A regular verb forms its past 
tense (indicative mood) and its past participle by adding *'d" 
or ''ed" to the present tense form; as, (present) enter, (past 
indicative) entered, (past participle) entered. An irregular 
verb forms its past tense and past participle by internal 
changes of form ; as, go, zvent, g.one. There is, therefore, 
practically no opportunity for making mistakes in the use of 
regular verbs ; but the misuse of the irregular verbs is one 
of the most common violations of correct speech in English. 

Cause of Errors. There are but a few verbs, compara- 
tively, around which these mistakes center; and a Httle care- 
ful study, followed by a close watch upon one's speech for 
a time, will quickly clear away all difficulties. The errors 
sometimes spring from regarding irregular verbs as regular; 
as, ''I knoived" for ''I knew" ; sometimes from regarding 
regular verbs as irregular; as, '1ie dove" for "he dived" ; but 
most often from ignorance or carelessness as to when the past 
tense form and when the past participle form should be used. 
And there is a curious inconsistency in these mistakes. A 
person may habitually say "I seen" or "I done," but he would 
be shocked to hear the expression "I gone" or "I taken" ; 
and yet the mistake is exactly the same. As a matter of fact, 

384 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 



385 



the expression "I taken" is common in some sections of this 
country. 

Past Tense and Participle. The three forms of the verb 
mentioned at the beginning of this chapter are called its 
''principal parts.'' The difficulty occurs, of course, in the 
use of the past tense form and the past participle form. The 
past form is to be used when simple past time is denoted ; the 
past participle form, when modifications of tjme represented 
by various auxiliary and copulative verbs are denoted. The 
student may be assisted by the following illustration : 



Past Tense Form 



He went 



He 



Past Participle Form 
fis 

was 

has 

had 

has been 

had been 

may have 

might have 

will have 

could have 

should have 

would have 

may have been 

might have been 

will have been 

could have been 

should have been 

would have been 



gone. 



386 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 



List of Verbs. Before this rule can be successfully 
applied, the "principal parts" must be thoroughly learned. The 
list of verbs in the use of which mistakes are made is com- 
paratively a short one, as stated above, and is here given : 



Present 








Past Indicative 


Past Parti cip 


awake ( 


intransitive) 




awoke 


awaked 


awaken 


(transitive; 


reg- 


awakened 


awakened 


ular) 












begin 








began 


begun 


beseech 








besought 


besought 


blow 








blew 


blown 


bid (to 


command, to 


re- 


bade 


bidden or bid 


quest) 












bid (to 


offer, 


at auction) 


bid 


bid 


break 








broke 


broken 


burst 








burst 


burst 


choose 








chose 


chosen 


come 








came 


come 


do 








did 


done 


drink 








drank 


drunk 


drive 








drove 


driven 


eat 








ate 


eaten 


flee 








fled 


fled 


fly 








flew 


flown 


freeze 








froze 


frozen 


forget 








forgot 


forgotten 


get 








got 


got or gotten 



go 



went 



gone 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 



387 



Present 



Past Indicative Past Participle 
hunof huno- 



hang- 




hanged (oi crm 


.1- hanged (ot 






inals) 


inals 


lay (to put down) 


laid 


laid 


lie (to recline) 




lay 


lain 


light (to set on 


fire; 


lighted 


lighted 


regular) 






, 


light (as of a bi 


ird) 


lighted or lit 


lighted or lit 


prove 




proved 


proved 


plead (regular) 




pleaded 


pleaded 


ride 




rode 


ridden 


ring 




rang 


rung 


rise 




rose 


risen 


run 




ran 


run 


see 




saw 


seen 


set (to place) 




set 


set 


set (as of the sun, etc.) 


set 


set 


sit 




sat 


sat 


shake 




shook 


shaken 


show 




showed 


shown 


shrink 




shrank 


shrunk 


sink 




sank 


sunk 


sing 




sang 


sung 


slay 




slew 


slain 


speak 




spoke 


spoken 


spring 




sprang 


sprung 


steal 




stole 


stolen 


swim 




swam 


swum 



388 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

Present Past Indicative Past Participle 

take took taken 

throw threw thrown 

wake (transitive) woke waked 

write wrote written 

EXERCISE 12 

1. ate, eaten: After he had ... he came out. 

2. ate, eaten: He . . . all that was set before him. 

3. awoke, awaked: He ... at six o'clock. 

4. awoke, awaked: He had . . . before I called 

him. 

5. began, begun: After he had once ... to climb, 

he w^as unwilling to return. 

6. blew, blown: The blast . . . strongly from the 

north. 

7. blew, blown: The recently fallen snow was 

from the fields. 

8. bid, bade, bidden: I was ... to come at five 

o'clock. 

9. bid, bade: He . . . me be prompt. 

10. bid, bade: He . . . one hundred dollars for the 

horse. 

11. broke, broken: The bottle had been . . . into 

fragments. 

12. burst, bursted: The sharp frost . . . the pipe. 

13. burst, bursted: The net was . . . asunder. 

14. chose, chosen: Mary was . . . president of the 

class. 



PRACTICAL EXGLISH 389 

15. came, come: lie ... to my room and told me 

father had . . . home. 

16. did, done: After he had . . . the work, he went 

home. 
17*. did, done: He ... as well as he could. 

18. drank, drunk: \\dien the deer had ... its fill, 

it bounded away. 

19. drove, driven : He told me had . . . all night. 

20. froze, frozen : He looked as if he were almost 

to death. 

21. forgot, forgotten: Have you . . . your promise? 

22. got, gotten: He told me he had . . . his books 

at Gordon's. 

23. lighted, lit: He . . . the camp fire just as the 

bird . . . upon a neighboring tree. 

24. lie, lay: If I ... in the sun long, I shall suffer 

for it. 

25. lie, lay: Do you think this will be safe if I . . . 

it here. 

26. lie, lay: Yes, I think it will . . . there in per- 

fect safety. 

27 . lie, lay: He told me to . . . still. 

28. lie, lay: I told him to . . . down and . 

his gun by his side. 

29. lay, laid: He . . . himself at full length upon 

the ground. 

30. lay, laid, lain: Having . . . down he . . . 

his book beside him. 



390 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

31. lay, laid, lain: He . . . his burden down and 

down beside it. 
2)2. lay, laid, lain: Having . . . the book away, he 

. down to rest. 
2)2>. lay, laid, lain: After having . . . still awhile, he 

his plans for escape. 
34. laid, lain: He was . . . upon the sofa. 
ZS. lay, laid: He . . . great stress upon that point. 
2>6. lay, laid, lain : The vessel . . . quietly above the 

spot where the mines had been. 
27. lay, laid: He . . . his head upon the pillow and 
. . . still. 

38. fled, flew, flown: When we came the bird had . . . 

39. fled, flew: The animal ... at our approach. 

40. pleaded, plead: He . . to be released. 

41. proved, proven: His guilt Avas not conclusively 

42. rang, rung: The curfew^ bell has . . . and we 

should go. 

43. rode, ridden: He was very tired, having ... all 

day. 

44. rose, risen, raised: After he had . . . from the 

chair, he . . . his hand for silence. 

45. run, ran: I have ... a good race. 

46. saw, seen: I . . . him there tw^o weeks ago. 

47. saw, seen: I have . . . many misfortunes in m}^ 

time. 

48. sat, set: He . . . down after having 

his box on the floor. 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 391 

49. sat, set: lie . . . his valise in the corner where 

his father had 

50. sat, set: Having . . down, he . . . the 

box on the table. 

51. sat, set: Having . . . the box down, he . . . 

on it. 

52. sat, set: The sun . . . in splendor. 

53. sat, set: After he had . . . still for a long time, 

he . . . out in great haste. 

54. sit, set: I told him to . . . by my side. 

55. sat, set: Having . . . down and . . . his 

apparel in order, he spoke thus : 

56. sat, set: After he had rested a long time, he . . . 

out upon his journey. 
Z)7 . sit, set: \\T11 you come and . . . beside me? 

58. shook, shaken: xAfter he had . . . hands all 

around, he . . . the dust of the place from his 
feet. 

59. shrank, shrunk: The buildings seemed to him to have 

in size. 

60. showed, shown: He has . . . me many cour- 

tesies. 

61. spoke, spoken: Lie . . . before he w^as 

to. 

62. swam, swum: Though he . . . rapidly, his 

friends had already . . . across the river. 

63. slew, slain: He . . . his foe, but was in turn 

by the dead man's friends. 

64. stole, stolen: It is plain that the goods w^ere . 



392 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

65. threw, throwed. He . . . the missile with great 

force. 

66. throwed, thrown: He was . . . overboard by the 

lurching of the vessel. 

67. took, taken: I have ... a full course in mathe- 

matics. 

68. took, taken : He . . . his books and left. 

69. went, gone: I have . . . through the grammar 

several times. 

70. went, gone: He had left the town and . . . home. 

71. woke, waked: They . . . me altogether too early. 
12. wrote, written: I . . .to you often, but you 

have not ... a single line in reply. 



CHAPTER VII 



"SHALL" AND "WILL," "SHOULD" AND "WOULD" 

PRINCIPLES: 1. To express action that will take 
place in the future (simple futurity), use SHALL in the 
first person and WILL in the second and third. 

2. To express an act of the will — as a promise, purpose, 
or determination — use WILL in the first person and 
SHALL in the second and third. 

3. In questions, use the same auxiliary ("shall" or 
"will") that would be used correctly in the reply. 

Simple Futurity. The violations of the first principle 
— the use of shall in the first person and will in the second 
and third in expressing simple futurity — occur almost wholly 
in connection with the first person. Such expressions as 
these are very common: "I zvill be unable to attend"; "We 
will not go to town this week." In both cases shall should be 
used, because they are simple statements of what is to take 
place in the future and do not imply any promise, purpose, 
or determination of the speaker. But for the same reason it 
is proper to say, "You will be unable to attend" or "He will 
be unable to attend." This is illustrated in the ordinary con- 
jugation of the future tenses : 

393 



394 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

Sing.nlar Plural 

I sJiall go We shall go 

You zvill go You zvill go 

He zvill go They ivill go 

So, if we intend to express simple futurity, we say. in the 
first person : ''I shall spend next Sunday with my friend" ; 
''T shall not do much studying during vacation" ; ''We shall 
not attempt to make the journey today." Will would not be 
correct in these sentences. But we also properly say, in the 
second and third persons : ''He will spend next Sunday with 
his friend" ; "You will be surprised at the growth of the 
town"; ''they zvill not attempt to make the journey today." 

Volition. But if it is the intention to express promise, 
purpose, or determination, implying something within the con- 
trol of the speaker, then, under the second principle, the usage 
is reversed, and the conjugation is as follows : 

Singular Plural 

I zinll go We zvill go 

You shall go You shall go 

He shall go - They shall go 

Violations of this rule are much less frequent than of the 
first, because the very thought in the speaker's mind suggests 
the proper word. Thus, we say : "Yes, I zvill come, if you 
wish" (promise) ; "I zvill come in spite of him" (determina- 
tion) ; "You shall be paid in full" (promise) ; "You shall 
hear me" (determination) ; "He shall be treated fairly" 
(promise) ; "They shall be told" (determination). Sometimes 



PRACTICAL EXXxLISH 395 

the student may find it a little difficult to distinguish between 
volition and simple futurity. For example, we say, "I zvill 
come" (promise); but, "I shall be glad to come" (futurity). 
It should be observed here, too, that zvill is often used with 
the second and third persons in military commands to a sub- 
ordinate officer; as, "You -d'ill proceed immediately to join 
your command." This is a violation of the rule w^e have just 
been considering, strictly construed, since it^ implies a com- 
mand. It is sufficient to say that the softer form is employed, 
in military usage, not to lessen the force of the command, 
but to indicate official courtesy. 

Then, too, there is the use of shall in prophecy, in apparent 
exception to the rule we have just been studying. "Goodness 
and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life" ; "He shall 
come down like rain upon the mow^n grass." This use has 
no special significance in our time, as it is restricted wholly 
to prophetic poetry and to very rhetorical prose. 

Interrogative Forms. As stated in the third rule, the 
same auxiHary should be used in the question as would prop- 
erly be used in the reply. Thus, take the question : "SJmll 
you take part in the play?" This means, "Are you going to 
take part, etc." (mere futurity), and the answer, if fully 
given, w^ould be, "I shall/' or "I shall not." This answer de- 
termines the form of the auxiliary in the question. Take 
another: "JVill you grant me this request?" (promise). The 
answer to this would be, 'T zvill/' or "I zvill not." Let us 
take an illustration in the third person : "Shall John come 
with me?" This implies an answer expressing volition of 



396 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

the person addressed — ''He shall," or ''He shall not" ; the 
form used in the question is therefore correct. But in the 
question, ''Will John be with you?" the form is also correct, 
because mere futurity is expressed, and the answer would be 
"He will" or "He will not." It will be seen at once that the 
application of this rule depends absolutely upon the principles 
laid down in the two preceding ones. 

Exception. This very important exception to the rule 
we have just been considering must be noted : that will is 
never used in interrogations when the question is in the first 
person — that is, when / or we is the subject. This is true 
regardless of the form that would be used in the reply. Fol- 
lowing are illustrations : 

Shall I see you tomorrow? 
Shall we be the first to arrive? 
Shall we see you there? 

There is, however, an interrogative use of will in the first 
person by way of contempt, derison, or defiance, and sug- 
gested by a preceding question; as, ''Will I? You're right, I 
will" This use is so familiar as to need no further explana- 
tion or illustration. 

"Should" and "Would.'' Should and zvould follow the 
same rules as shall and zvill. To illustrate: 

I should be pleased to go. (Futurity.) 

Yes, I would go (volition) if 1' should be invited, (Futurity.) 

I asked him if he should be there. (Shall you be there?) 

He said he zvould go if I wished it. (*'I zmll go.") 

You should be careful in the use of English. 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 397 

In the last sentence, should is used in its old sense of ouglit, 
and not in illustration of the rules above given. 

EXERCISE 13 

Write the follozviiKj sentences, inserting ''shall" or "tviir 
in the blanks: 

1. I . . . continue my studies during the svuiimer. 

2. Yes, I ... go with you if you desire. 

3. I . . .be pleased to meet your friend. 

4. I . . . give you my last penny. 

5. We . . . . go to the mountains this summer. 

6. I . . . have my rights ; nothing . . . prevent 

it. 

7. Yes, we ... be with you on Thursday. 

8. We . . . take pleasure in being with you on Thurs- 

day. 

9. We . . . esteem it a privilege to go with you. 

10. We ... go with you without fail. 

11. . . . you go abroad this summer? 

12. Yes, I . . . go if I can afford it. 

13. You . . . find him an agreeable gentleman. 

14. He ... be pleased to see you, I am sure. 

15. He . . . pay to the last farthing; I . . . see 

to that. 

16. . . . he certainly be there? Yes, he . . . 

17. . . ■ . he be told the truth? Most certainly, he 

18. . . . he come with me, or ... I come alone ? 

19. "When ... we three meet again?" 



398 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

20. . . . you do me the favor to post this letter? 

21. . . . you be glad to see me? 

Insert "should" or ''ivould" in the blanks 

22. I ... be glad to see you there. 

23. If you had come, we . . . have done our utmost 

to entertain you. 

24. He wished me to go, but I . . . not. 

2h. . . . you like to go with us? Yes, I . . . 

26. What ... he think of the proposition? 

27. I . . . like to know, I am sure. 

28. What . . . you do if you were in my place? 

29. I . . . say nothing. 

30. As much as I . . regret to do it, yet I . . . 

do it. 

31. If he . . . not come, what . . . we do? 



CHAPTER VIII 



THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 

Subjunctive and Indicative. The distinction between 
the subjunctive and the indicative form of verbs is coming 
to be very generally disregarded in English speech, except 
in the case of the verb ''be" ; and particular attention will 
therefore be directed to this verb. The general difference 
between the two moods should, however, first be indicated. 

Difference in Meaning. The difficulty in distinguishing 
the moods arises chjefly when some word like if, unless, 
though, etc., introduces the expression. Many persons think 
that these words necessarily throw the expression into the 
subjunctive mood. But it depends altogether upon the mean- 
ing. The indicative mood either expressly states, or neces- 
sarily implies, a fact. The subjunctive mood represents that 
which is doubtful, uncertain, or contrary to the fact. Thus : 
'Tf he was there, it was through no fault of his." In this 
sentence the speaker admits that "he was there," and the 
indicative is properly used. 'Tf he were there, how happy I 
should be!" Here the plain implication is that he is not 
there, and the subjunctive is required. "Though the storm 
was fierce, we undertook the journey" (indicative). "Though 
the storm zvere fiercer than it is, wq should still undertake 
the journey" (subjunctive). 

399 



400 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

Difference in Form. Except in the case of the verb 
be, the subjunctive differs from the indicative only in the 
absence of the ending ^ from the third person singular of the 
present subjunctive; as, ''Though He slay me, yet will I trust 
him." To be strictly accurate, then, we should use the sub- 
junctive form in such expressions as the following: 

If only he decide according to the evidence, all will be well. 
Whether he succeed or fail, he will be true to his principles. 
Though he break my heart, I will not desert him. 
Unless he come to the rescue, all will be lost. 

But as above stated, this distinction is not generally ob- 
served — certainly not, at least, in speaking — except perhaps 
in the case of the formal phraseology of votes and resolu- 
tions ; as, ''Resolved, That the Board extend its thanks, etc." 

Subjunctive of "Be." The present subjunctive of this 
verb has the same form in all persons, singular and plural, 
as follows : 

Singular Plural 

If I be If we be 

If you be If you be 

If he be If they be 

It is correctly used in this sentence: "Unless it be an abso- 
lute necessity, he will not do it." But it, too, is largely dis- 
regarded, except in the phrasing of votes and resolutions (as, 
"Resolved, that this communication be returned to the writer"), 
and in such expressions as "God be with you," "so be it," etc. 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 401 

Preterite. But the preterite subjunctive is still in very 
active service, and an assured knowledge of how to use it is 
essential to one who would speak and write good English. 
This form is were in all persons, singular and plural, as fol- 
lows : 

Singular Plural 

If I were If we were 

If you were If you )vere 

If he were If they were 

It may be well to repeat that the mere fact that if, unless, 
though, and other conditional words introduce the expression 
does not necessarily mean that zvere is to be used. For exam- 
ple, we say properly, ''If he was there, I didn't see him."' 
Use was, then, when a fact is asserted or admitted. Use zvere 
(1) when the conditional expression asserts something doubt- 
ful or contrary to the fact; (2) to express a wish; (3) after 
the conjunctive phrase as if. To illustrate: 

If she u;eyc here, I should take pains to see her. (Contrary to 
fact.) 

If she tvcrc to come, I do not know what would happen. (Un- 
certainty.) 

I wish she were here. (Wish.) 

Would she were here. (Wish.) 

You act as if she were already here. (After "as if.") 

It is to be observed that sometimes none of the introductory 
words or phrases ordinarily used to indicate the subjunctive 
are employed. In such cases the preterite precedes the sub- 
ject; as, ''Were I certain of this, I should surely come." 



402 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 
EXERCISE 14 



JVritc the foUoiving sentences, inserting "i^'as" or "zvere" 
in the blanks: 

1. Though he ... a good student, he failed to pass 

the examination. 

2. Though he . . . ever so good a student, he could 

not pass this examination. 

3. If Henry . . . mistaken, he was sincere. 

4. If I . . . in your place, I should take no chances, 
wise, he would decline the invitation, 
my son, I should manage him differ- 



5. If he . . 

6. If he . 

ently. 

7. Even if he 

8. If I . . 

satisfied. 

9. If I . . 

10. Unless he 

this feat. 

11. If it . . 



harsh, he was just, 
certain of a good income, I should be 

excited, I am sure I didn't show it. 

an athlete, he could not accomplish 



a mistake, I am ready to take the con- 
a mistake, I should be willing; to suffer 



sequences. 

12. If it . . 

for it. 

13. . . .1 convinced of his sincerity, I should be willing- 

to follow him. 

14. Would it . . . possible to decide at this moment. 

15. It looks as if John . . . bound to win the race. 



CHAPTER IX 



THE USE OF "LIKE" FOR "AS" OR "AS IF" 

"Like." It may seem that undue attention is given to 
this Httle word in this chapter, but it is so extensively mis- 
used in certain sections of this country, in doing- duty for as or 
as if, that its proper use should be emphasized. Like is a 
noun, an adjective, a verb, a preposition, or an adverb, accord- 
ing to meaning, but it is too much to ask it to serve also 
as a conjunction. In such sentences as "He looks like his 
father," "He acts like a man," it is properly used as an ad- 
verb. But we very often hear such expressions as this: "It 
looks like it would rain," "I felt like I should faint," etc. In 
each of these sentences as if should be used instead of like. 
Or take another example: "He acts just like I thought he 
would." Here like is used for as. 

Principle. The rule is simple : When a verb follows, 
use as or as if; when no verb follows, or when it is suppressed, 
use like. For example : "It looks as if we should have a 
storm." (\'erb follows.) "He acts as a man should act." 
(\^erb follows.) "He acts like a man." (\^erb suppressed.) 
"He looks like that man." (No verb.) 

EXERCISE 15 

JVritc the folloicing sentences, inserting "like,'' "as," or "as 
if" in the blanks: 

403 



404 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 



1. 


ITe looks ... he were (was) tired. 


2. 


He looks . . . one bereft. 


3. 


He talks ... he means what he says. 


4. 


She sings . . . she enjoyed it. 


5. 


She sings ... a bird. 


6. 


He looks ... he could bear the burden. 


7. 


It seems ... we are to have an unfavorable season. 


8. 


He acts ... he feels. 


9. 


He looks ... a mad man. 


10. 


You do not work . . . we do. 


11. 


He acted ... he would create a disturbance. 


12. 


He worked ... a beaver. 


13. 


He lives ... a man should live. 


14. 


He acted just . . . any other man would act under 




the circumstances. 


15. 


He looked ... he would look if he were going to 




be hanged. 


16. 


He looked . . . one accustomed to poverty. 


17. 


He looks ... a villain. 


18. 


He looks ... a villain had assaulted him. 


19. 


He acts just ... I thought he would. 


20. 


He conducts himself ... a gentleman should. 


21. 


John did not mourn . . . Mary did. 


22. 


He did not apologize ... he ought to have done. 


2Z. 


He looks ... a friend. 


24. 


But he does not treat me ... a friend should. 


25. 


It looks ... we shall have an early winter. 


26. 


He acts ... he were (was) half demented. 



CHAPTER X 



THE EXPRESSION OF AN EXISTING FACT OR 

GENERAL TRUTH, AND THE USE OF THE 

PRESENT AND PERFECT INFIIsTITIVES 

Cause of Errors. In a dependent clause it is natural, 
and generally proper, to make the tense of the verb accord 
with that of the verb in the principal clause. This is what 
grammarians call the ''sequence of tenses," and will not be 
discussed or illustrated here. But in a dependent clause assert- 
ing an existing, fact or a general truth, even when the verb 
of the principal clause is in a past tense, the verb of the 
dependent clause is generally in the present tense. For exam.- 
ple : "He evidently did not realize how far it was from 
New York to San Francisco." The distance from New York 
to San Francisco is always the same, so is should be used in- 
stead of zvas. We speak of expressions like this as indicating 
an existing or present fact. Take another illustration : "He 
contended that intemperance zvas the cause of more suffering 
than poverty." This is the statement of a general principle, 
and the verb in the dependent clause should be is. Take this 
passage from a popular text-book on English literature : "It 
seemed to Wordsworth that the secret of life was to hold fast 
youth's generous emotions, etc." This states a general prin- 
ciple, and the verb should be is. 

405 



406 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

Caution. But this may be carried to extremes. For 
instance, while we should strictly say, ''I could not remember 
what his name is" (since the name is the same now that it 
Avas then), it is probably better usage to say, *'I could not 
remember what his name zvas:' This is called by some authori- 
ties "tense attraction." Generally, when the existing fact or 
general truth is stated merely in the form of an indirect quo- 
tation, introduced by "he said that," '*he replied that," etc., 
a past tense is used in the dependent clause. For example : 
"He said that slothfulness zcas (not is) his besetting sin." 
''He replied that no can could (not can) serve two masters." 

Present and Perfect Infinitive. Closely related to the 
errors just described are those resulting from the use of the 
perfect infinitive when the present infinitive should be em- 
ployed. Take these sentences : 

It would have pleased me to haz'e been there. 

I was sorry not to have gone. 

I should have liked to have taken part. 

In each case the speaker, by his first assertion ('Tt v/ould 
have pleased me," 'T was sorry," 'T should have liked"), puts 
himself back to the time of which he is speaking. He then 
makes the mistake of putting himself still farther back by 
using the perfect infinitive. These sentences should read : 

It would have pleased me to be there. 

I was sorry not to go. 

I should have liked to take part. 

Of course it is not to be understood that the perfect infin- 



PRACTICAL EXGIJSII 407 

itive is never properly used in a subordinate clause. For 
example, we say properly: "It was a great pleasure to lia:'c 
accomplished so much in so short a time"; "1 am glad to lia-re 
been of service to you." It is used to denote action that is 
completed at the time indicated 1)y the verb of the principal 
clause. 

EXERCISE 16 

1. Are, were: Our forefathers strongly as.^erted the l^elief 

that all men . . . created equal. 

2. are, were: The Stoics believed that all crimes 

equal. 

3. is, was: He did not remember what a long- distance 

it . . . from Edinburgh to London. 

4. is, was: The French Commune taught that death 

an eternal sleep. 

5. makes, made : The speaker contended that prosperity 

men reckless. 

6. is, was: For a long- time men refused to believe that 

the earth . . . round. 

7. is, was: He did not seem to realize that honesty 

the best policy. 

8. be, have been : I intended to . . . there. 

9. speak, have spoken: That was the time for him to 

10. see, have seen: I should have been pleased to . . . 

him. 

11. come, have come : I meant to ... 

12. be, have been: Tf I had known of it, I should have 

made a great effort to . . . there. 



408 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

13. go, have gone: Under other circumstances I should 

have been more than pleased to . . . with you. 

14. speak, have spoken: I should have been delighted tc 

, if I had been there. 

15. be, have been: One hundred lives were reported to 

lost in the disaster. 

16. perish, have perished : Ten persons were known to 

17. find, have found: It would not have been hard to 

out who did it. 

18. meet, have met: It would have been a great pleasure 

to me to . . . your friend. 

19. see, have seen: I hoped to . . . see you there. 

20. go, have gone: It would have been better to . . . 

earlier. 

21. hear, have heard: I should have liked to . . . 

your speech. 

22. go, have gone: He fully intended to ... , but 

unforeseen circumstances prevented. 



CHAPTER XI 



MISCELLANEOUS COMMON ERRORS OF 
GRAMMAR 

The Article. The most frequent errors in connection 
with the use of the article (a, an and the) arise from viola- 
tion of the two following principles : 

1. When the article is used before the first of two or more 
nouns representing persons or things to be considered sepa- 
rately, it should be repeated before each of the following 
nouns. For example: ''The lake and the mountain were 
visible in the distance." ''A Frenchman, a German, and an 
Englishman sat at the same table." But when the nouns 
represent the same person or thing, or persons or things 
closely associated, the article is not repeated; as, 'A secretary 
and treasurer (one person) was elected"; 'The man and 
woman listened intently" ; "The husband and wife stood to- 
gether." "The roses and myrtles bloom unchilled on the verge 
of the avalanche." — Macaulay. Similarly, and for the same 
reason, when the article is used before the first of two or 
more adjectives qualifying the same noun, it should be re- 
peated before each of the following adjectives when the per- 
sons or things described are to be particularly distinguished, 
but not repeated when they are not to be so distinguished. 
In the first case the following noun will always be singular, 
in the second, plural. The following are familiar examples : 

409 



410 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

"Read the first and the second page." "Read the first and 
second pages." 

2. The article a or an should not be used before a noun 
after the phrases "sort of," ''kind of," ''class of," "character 
of," etc. For instance, "I did not know he was that sort of 
a man." 'T do not admire that kind of a rose." In both 
of these sentences the article should be omitted. Closely con- 
nected with this error is the habit of using the plurals of the 
adjectives tJiis and that ("these" and "those") with the singu- 
lar collective nouns kind, class, sort, etc. For example: "I 
do not like these kind of apples." "I do not read tJwse sort of 
books." In the first sentence the adjective should be this, in 
the second, that. 

EXERCISE 17 

In writing the follozcing sentences, insert the article (''a,'' 
''an," or ''the") in the bhviks wJien it should he used; leaz'e 
blank zvhen it should not be used. 

1. Education should develop . . . body, 

mind, and . . . soul. 

2. The vice-president and . . . general manager has 

resigned. 

3. Both the vice-president and . . . general manager 

have resigned. 

4. The man and . . . woman looked at us curiously. 
5. He is . . . gentleman, . . . scholar, and 

Christian. 
6. He did not know whether to use . . . indicative or 
subjunctive. 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 411 

7. Prepare carefully . . . first and . . . second 

chapter (chapters). 

8. There they stood, . . . Englishman and 

American. 

9. We are to elect three officers, . . . president, 

. . . treasurer, and . . . secretary. 

10. He read from both . . . old and . . . new 

edition. 

11. He is decidedly not the kind of . . . man we want. 

12. I hardly know what to think of that sort of . . . 

proposition. 

13. That character of . . . argument does not appeal 

to me. 

14. (Supply this or these). I did not ask for . . . sort 

of vegetables. 

15. (Supply that or those). I do not see any use in . . . 

sort of tactics. 

Who, Which, and That. There is much confusion in 
the choice of these relative pronouns ; and it is not to be 
wondered at, since much must be left to the ear of the speaker 
or writer. As far as rules can be laid down, they are as fol- 
lows : 

1. Who is used of persons and, rarely, of animals. 
''There stands the man who can answer this question." Its use 
should be avoided in referring to animals, and is perhaps only 
justifiable in highly rhetorical writing, or in cases where ani- 
mals are invested with human attributes, as in this passage 
from Julius Ccesar: 



412 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

"Against the Capitol I met a lion, 

Who glared upon me, and went surly by." 

2. Which is used of animals and things, never, in modern 
English, of persons. "The horse, zvliich was a present from 
the General, was a magnificent animal." "The document 
of zvJiich you spoke is in my possession." "The committee, 
which had been previously appointed, made its report." In 
the last sentence the collective noun "committee" is regarded 
as a thing, not a person. 

3. That is used of persons, animals, or things ; and as 
before stated its use is largely a matter of euphony. Take 
this sentence : "There stands the very man that I was look- 
ing for." Here, that is plainly preferable to whom. But in 
the sentence, "A man zvho would do that would steal," zvho 
is preferable to that. Note also that in the first sentence 
the relative pronoun may properly be omitted : "There stands 
the man I was looking for." This often happens where that 
may be properly used. Following are examples of the correct 
use of which and that: 

The date zuhich (or that) 3-011 have named is agreeable to me. 

It was the most violent storm that was ever witnessed here. 

The specifications, which I find strictly according to our contract, 

have been received. 
Kis hands, zuhicJi had become roughened by toil and exposure, 

were extended in appeal. 
The hand that he extended was soiled and rough. 

The alert pupil will observe that when a comma precedes 
the relative, as in the third and fourth examples given 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 413 

above, — that is, when the clause introduced by the relative 
is ''coordinating," and not restrictive, — zvhich is used instead 
of that; otherwase it is largely a matter for the ear to de- 
termine. 

Whose. It is a generally accepted rule that wliosc should 
not be used of animals or things, since it is the possessive of 
who; that the phrase of zvhich should be used instead. For 
example : "We came to a house, the front of which faced 
a well-kept lawn.'' But whose is gradually coming into use 
in such expressions, and is frequently preferable, on the 
ground of smoothness, to of zvhich. Take this sentence : 
"There stood a tree zvhose branches were alive with singing 
birds." ''Whose branches" is certainly preferable here to 
"the branches of zvhich." Shakespeare affords sanction to this 
usage in the famous lines, 

"The undiscover'd country from zvhose bourne 
No traveller returns." 

EXERCISE 18 

In zvriting. the foUozving sentences, insert ''zvho," "zvhich," 
or "that." Blanks may he left unfilled if the sentence is im- 
proved thereby. 

1. He is the only man . . . could have convinced me. 

2. You are the man . . . should have been sent. 

3. He was the man . . . , of all the company, was 

best fitted to lead. 

4. There are many persons . . . will not engage in 

any important undertaking on Friday. 



414 PRACTICAL EXGLISH 

5. (Supply that or zvliom). He is the same man 

we saw yesterday. 

6. The best service . . . he can render to the cause is 

to keep still. 

7. The offer ... he rejected was accepted by his 

brother. 

8. The pet squirrel, . . . had known no other home 

than its cage, did not know what to do with its free- 
dom. 

9. The book . . . you lent me has been lost. 

10. The book, . . . unfortunately has been lost, was 

lent to me by a friend. 

11. "The evil . . . men do lives after them." — Shake- 

speare. 

12. The thing ... I most regretted was the tedious 

delay. 

13. The wind, . . . had been increasing in violence, 

now became a gale. 

14. The dog . . . had caused so much annoyance was 

killed. 

15. The bird dog, . . . was highly prized by its owner, 

was poisoned. 

16. (Supply tJiat or whom). The man . . . you sent 

proved to be utterly incompetent. 

17. The men and material . . . had been procured were 

transported to the coast. 

18. (Correct, if necessary). This decision, wJiose far-reach- 

ing effect was not fully appreciated, was delivered by 
an oljscure judge. 



PRACTJCWL ENGLISH 415 

19. (Correct, if necessary). The judge zvhose decision cre- 
ated such a sensation, was comparatively unknown. 

Comparison of Adjectives. When two persons or things 
are compared, the comparative degree of the adjective should 
be used; when more than two, the superlative. Thus, "He 
was the taller of the two men" ; "He was the youngest of 
the five." When the comparative degree is used to express 
comparison of a particular person or thing with the rest of 
the class to which it belongs, the word other should be used, 
to exclude the particular person or thing from the class. 
Take, for example, this sentence : ''John is more studious 
than any pupil in school." Now John himself is a "pupil in 
school," so the sentence would mean that John is more studious 
than he himself. The word ''other" should be supplied before 
"pupil." We may properly say, however, "John is more 
studious than any of his classmates," because John is not 
one of his own classmates. When the superlative degree is 
used, other should not be employed, as will be seen by this 
sentence : "John is the most studious of all the pupils." In 
such a case the particular person or thing should be included 
in the class. 

Adjective or Adverb. It is often a puzzling question 
as to whether an adjective or an adverb should be used after 
such verbs as look, taste, smell, feel, and grozv. Generally 
speaking, the qualifying word after these verbs should be an 
adjective, because it applies to the subject; but if it plainly 
applies to the verb, it should be an adverb. Thus we say : 
"She looked beautiful" (not beautifully) ; "It tasted szueef 



416 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

(not sweetly) ; ''It smelled bad'' (not badly) ; ''He felt zvarm" 
(not warmly); 'The weather grew cold" (not caldly). But 
if the qualifying word denotes the manner of the action, it 
must be an adverb; as, "He looked at me angrily" ; "The dog 
smells keenly" ; "The tree grows rapidly" ; "He felt warmly 
.on the subject." A special question arises with regard to the 
verb feel. Shall we say, for example, "He felt bad" or "He 
felt badly"? The best usage seems to be to use "bad" w^hen 
one's physical condition is spoken of, and "badly" when emo- 
tion or moral significance is involved; as, "I feel bad today." 
"I am feeling badly about it." Another question is involved 
in the use of zvell, in such expressions as, "He looks ivell." 
This word is both an adjective and an adverb, and in this case 
is properly used as an adjective. In the sentence, "She sings 
zvell" it is used as an adverb. 

EXERCISE 19 
Comparison of Adjectives, etc. 

1. less, least: Of the two evils, I shall choose the . 

2. braver, bravest: He was the ... of the two; 
less, least: he was also the . . . prudent. 

3. greater, greatest: The . . . portion of the audi- 

ence remained. 

4. more, most: Of the several courses open to him, he 

chose the one . . . advantageous. 

5. (Correct, if necessary). No man in the whole college 

was so popular as Harley. 

6. (Correct, if necessary). No man of his generation 

accomplished so much good as John Wesley. 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 417 

7. (Correct, if necessary). No man of his time accom- 

plished more good than Wesley. 

8. (Correct, if necessary). He seemed the most likely 

of all others to succeed. 

9. (Correct, if necessary). I like my ring l^etter than any 

ornament I have. 

10. (Correct, if necessary). AHce is more gifted than any 

girl in school. 

11. (Correct, if necessary). Alice is the most gifted of all 

the other girls in school. 

Adjective or Adverb 

12. strange, strangely: He acted 

13. savage, savagely: He looked ... at his oppo- 

nent. 

14. bitter, bitterly: The medicine tasted 

15. bad, badly: It smells as . . . as it tastes. 

16. bad, badly: He looks . . . since his illness. 

17. bad, badly: Doubtless he feels . . . also. 

18. bad, badly: He felt . . . over his failure. 

19. quiet, quietly: He appeared . . . , but he was. 

in fact, very rude. 

20. quiet, quietly: He appeared ... at the ap- 

pointed time. 

21. agreeable, agreeably: ... to your request, I am 

writing this letter. 

22. beautiful, beautifully: She looked . . .in her 



418 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

23. beautiful, beautifully. She looked . . . and acted 
her part 

"Split Infinitives." To is spoken of as "the sign of the 
infinitive." It should not be separated from the rest of 
the verb by an intervening word or phrase. Expressions like 
this are common: "I wish to emphatically object to this 
proceeding" (emphatically to object). "He was accustomed 
to every now and then pay me a visit" (to pay me a visit 
every now and then.) There are writers who insist that force 
may sometimes be gained by violating this rule, but the longer 
the student gives himself practice in abiding by it, the more 
he will find it a safe rule to follow. 

Contractions. Contractions are by no means to be 
avoided in conversation, but they should be used carefully. 
Don't is the worst offender. It is a contraction of do not, 
and cannot, therefore, be used with a singular subject. ''He 
don't care" is wrong (He do not care), but "They don't care" 
is correct. Doesn't is the proper contraction of does not, and 
so the sentence first given should be, "He doesn't care." Aint 
is not permissible under any circumstances. 

Additional Tense Errors. Such expressions as this are 
frequently heard: "If I had not have been there. I don't 
know what would have happened." It should be, "If I had 
not been" or "had I not been." Had, not had have, is the 
sign of the past perfect tense, and the combination "had 
have" is not permissible imder any circumstances. In the same 
connection mieht be mentioned the common use of hadn't 



PRACTICAL EXGLISH 419 

ought for ought not. "Hadn't ought" is a vulgarism, and should 
never be used. Do not say, "He hadn't ought to have done it," 
but "He ought not to have done it.'' 

Can and May. There are many shades of meaning in 
these two words, but so far as they are concerned as being 
the source of errors of speech, it is sufficient to say that can 
is used to express ability or possibility, may to express per- 
mission, probability, or wish. Take this common question : 
"Can I go into the next room for a moment?" Of course you 
can. What you mean to ask is, "May I go?" The complete 
answer would be, "Yes, you may,'' not "Yes, you can."''^ 
But in the interrogation, "Can any man perform such a feat?" 
can is properly used, because power is referred to. Could 
and might, the preterites of can and may, are subject to the 
same distinction. 

EXERCISE 20 
"Split Infinitives" 

The folloiving. sentences are incorrect ; zvrite them correctly. 

1. I wish you to thoroughly understand my proposition. 

2. I hope to be able to ahvays rely upon your judgment. 

3. He was accustomed to every now and then dispute my 

word. 

4. He used to habitually stay out until a very late hour. 

5. Every one should try to so live as to never be justly 

accused of dishonorable conduct. 

*The curious circumstance is to be noted, however, that if the 
answer is negative, can is used, though the question uses may. "May 
I go?" "No. you can not." 



420 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

Contractions 

6. don't, doesn't: He . . . know what he is talking 

about. 

7. don't, doesn't: John . . . seem to care whose 

feelings he hurts. 

8. aint, isn't: There ... a particle of doubt about 

it. 

9. aint, aren't: . . . 3'ou going to the entertainment 

tonight? 

10. aint, aren't: . . . they about ready to start? 

Tense Errors 

Reivrlte the foUozving sentences, correcting zvJiere necessary. 

11. Had I have seen him, I should have spoken. 

12. If he had only have been there, this would not have hap- 

pened. 

13. If you had only have taken my advice, we should now 

be comfortable. 

14. You hadn't ought to object. 

15. He hadn't ought to have been permitted to have done it. 

Can and May 

16. can, may: ... a man do more than his best? 

17. can, may: . . . I go to town today? 

18. can, ,may: Yes, you ... go if you 

find a conve3^ance. 

19. can, may: ... I take your pencil a moment? 

20. could, might: He ... be able to save him, if 

he . . . only reach him. 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 421 

2L could, might: Lie said I . . . go, but I do not 

wish to. 
22. could, might: He ... do better work if lie were 

in robust health. 

Had better; v/ould better. Such sentences as "You 
had better go", "He had just as Hef remain", are justified by 
good usage. Grammatically, they are objectionable. Take 
out the adverb "better" in the first sentence, and you have 
left the impossible verbal form "had go." We can only say, 
as above stated, that good usage has made had better good 
English, and we may therefore use it or zvould (or should) 
better, at our pleasure. 

Between and Among. Between should be used when there 
is reference to two, among when there is reference to more 
than tzvo. Following are correct examples of their use : "The 
estate was divided bctzveen the two children" ; "The property 
was distributed among the five heirs." The student should 
watch himself closely in the use of these two words, since 
their incorrect use is exceedingly common. 

Beside and besides. Beside means "by the side of" ; be- 
sides means "in addition to." For example : The boy stood 
beside his father" ; "There was no one there besides us." 

Only. Numerous errors arise from the misplacing of 
the word only. For example : "I only had one marble" ; "He 
only had eyes for one person." In each case only should im- 
mediately precede one. "He was concerned only for his own 
safetv" is correct. 



422 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

Except, Without, Unless. Except and zvithout are prepo- 
sitions, unless is a conjunction. It is therefore correct to say, 
''There was no one with him except me" ; ''He would not 
go ivlthoiit her." But it is incorrect to say, "There was no 
one with him except you should count the dog" ; or, "He 
would not go without she went." In the last two sentences 
substitute unless for except and without, and they will be 
correct. 

Such, So. The adjective such is very often used improp- 
erly for so: as, "I never saw such a lovely flower." Here 
the speaker undertakes to modify "lovely," an adjective, by 
"such," another adjective. The sentence should read : "I never 
saw so lovely a flower." Such may, however, precede another 
adjective when both modify the following noun : as, "With 
reference to such minor details as you have mentioned, you 
may follow your own judgment." 

EXERCISE 21 
Between and Among; Beside and Besides 

1. between, among: He divided his Christmas cake 

his classmates. 

2. between, among: Honors w^ere even . . . the 

Republicans and the Democrats. 

3. between, among: An unfortunate quarrel arose 

the tw^o friends. 

4. beside, besides: He stood . . . me during the 

exercises. 

5. beside, besides: There was no one . . . him for 

me to consult. 



TRACTICAL EXGLISfl 423 

Only 
Rewrite the foUoiinng sentences, correcting zcliere necessary: 

6. He only saw the bright side of the enterprise. 

7. He only had one friend he could trust fully. 

8. I have read only a few of Scott's novels. 

9. I have only seen him two or three times. 

10. He does only those things which amuse him. 

11. He only goes when it suits his convenience. 

12. She only plays for her own entertainment. 

13. I have only been able to secure half a dozen copies. 

14. "I have only one lamp by which my feet are guided." 

Except, Without, Unless 

15. I will not go . . . you go with me. 

16. You cannot fill this position ... a good education. 

17. He will never succeed ... he works harder than 

he is working at present. 

18. There was no one present . . . him and me. 

19. He will surely undertake this enterprise . . . you 
dissuade him. 

But What; But That. There are many persons l)y no 
means illiterate who persist in using bnt zvhat for but that; 
as, 'T am not sure hut zvhat he is the better man of the two." 
This should read: 'T am not sure hut that he is the better man 
of the two." After the word "doubt," only that is to be 
used; as, 'T do not doubt that you will succeed" — not hut 
K'hat or hut that. While custom perhaps justifies the use of 



424 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

zvhcthcr after the word "doubt,"' the use of that is preferable. 
Thus: "I doubt that he will be there" — not zuhcther. 

As-as; so-as. There is a good deal of uncertainty about 
these correlatives. Generally speaking, when the clause is 
affirmative as-as should be used, when negative, so-as. Thus : 
''He is as tall as you are" ; "He is not so tall as you are." It 
cannot be said, however, that as-as would be incorrect in the 
second sentence. So, in this connection, seems to carry the 
idea of emphasis, and it is clearly preferable when emphasis 
is intended. For example, in the sentence, "John is not so 
gifted as Charles," there is a suggestion that Charles is unusu- 
ally gifted. 

Either-Or; Neither-Nor. Or is the correlative of either, 
nor of neither. This does not mean that or and nor can never 
be used without the preceding either or neither (though nor 
is very rarely so used), but that or must follow either, when 
it is used in the correlative construction, and nor must follow 
neither. It is therefore improper to say, "Neither wind or 
flood could stop him." Nor should be used. Nor should not 
be used in a correlative sense with no, not a, and other similar 
expressions. For example, we should say : "No trace or ves- 
tige was found" ; "Not a man or woman remained," Still 
more objectionable is such an expression as this: "Lincoln 
nor any other man could have done it." A still more common 
error is the misplacing of either and neither. "He said he 
neither saw the man nor the woman." This should read, "He 
said he saw neither the man nor the woman." Change the 
sentence slightly, and it will at once be apparent that it is 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH 425 

correct to say: "He said he neither saw the man nor heard 
him." In brief, each part of these correlative expressions 
must precede the same part of speech or the same construction. 

EXERCISE 22 

Such, So 

Rcivrite the folloivmg sentences, correcting, where necessary: 

1. Such a rare specimen should be carefully preserved. 

2. I have seldom seen so obstinate a person. 

3. As to such unforeseen circumstances as may then arise, 

I am not in a position to give you advice. 

4. As to such trivial matters as those, I should pay no atten- 

tion to them. 

But What; But That 

Rewrite the follozving sentences, correcting, zvhere necessary: 

5. Who knows but what he is deceiving us? 

6. I do not know but what he may come yet. 

7. He is not so young but that he knows better. 

8. I do not doubt but that you are telling the truth. 

9. I do not doubt but what it will come out all right in the 

end. 

10. I doubt whether you can depend upon him. 

Either-Or ; Neither-Nor 

Rcivrite the follozving sentences, correcting, zvhere necessary: 

11. Neither good fortune nor bad could shake the integrity 

of his character. 

12. Neither Charles or Edward cares much for his books. 



426 PRACTICAL ENGLISH 

13. No sound nor motion marred the stillness of the scene. 

14. Not a breath of wind, nor a chirp of bird, nor a single 

somid of insect Hfe relieved the dead silence of the 
night. (Note: This sentence (^14j is good, though in 
violation of the rule. The use of ''nor' after "not a" 
is sometimes permissible in rhetorical expressions.) 

15. She neither found relief in solitude nor refreshment in 

companionship. 

16. She neither found relief in solitude nor sought refresh- 

ment in companionship. 

17. You must either go with me or with John. 

18. You must either go with me or stay at home. 

1^^. He can neither be led away from the right by love or 

money. 
20. He neither sought to affirm or deny the report. 



INDEX 



TO 



GRAAnrAR AND CO^^IPOSITION 



Abbreviations, 222. 
Absolute, nominative, 165. 
Address, nominative ot, 39, 41. 
Adjective, 9, 10, 11, 16, 17, 18, 
19, 86. 

Clause used as, 102, 111. 

Definition of, 10. 

Interrogative, 86. 

Predicate, 35. 

Prepositional phrase used as, 98, 
100. 
Adjectives, classification of, 84, 
85, 86, 110. 

Comparison of, 87, 88, 89, 90, 
93. 

Confusion with adverbs, 266. 

Correct use of, 89, 261. 

Demonstrative, 83, 84, 85, 86, 93. 

Order of parsing, 91. 

Parsing, 92. 

Pronominal, 85. 

Qualitative, 82, 83, 86, 93. 

Uses of, 33, 34, 35, 90, 91, 92, 93. 
Adverb, definition, 14. 

Clause used as, 102, 107. 

Modif3'ing a preposition, 14. 

Modifying a phrase, 14. 

Noun used as, 56. 

Comparison of, 96. 
Adverbial objective, 56, 60. 
Adverbs, classification of, 94, 95. 

Confusion with adjectives, 266. 

Conjunctive, 113, 116. 

Parsing, 96, 97. 

Uses of, 14, 97. 
Allow, think, guess, 265. 
Analvsis, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 22, 30, 
76, 102. 103, 104, 105, 119, 120, 
121, 124, 125, 126, 155, 196, 
197. 

Form for, 123, 124. 



Antecedent of pronoun, 62, 72, 73. 
Appositive, 37, 38, 39, 49. 

Definition of, 38. 

with a noun in objective case, 
49, 60. 
Apostrophe, the, 41, 42, 43, 281. 
Art of Composition, 223. 
As, 122, 321. 

Used as a relative pronoun, 73. 
Auxiliary verbs, 138, 156, 157, 158. 
159. 

Bad, badlv, 256, 266. 
Be, 156, 159, 185, 186. 

Conjugation of, 185, 186, 187. 
Better than Gold, 299. 
Business forms, 297. 
Business letters, 294, 296. 
But, uses of, 73, 117, 266, 321. 

Can, 158, 159, 160, 161. 
Can, mav, 259. 

Capitalization, 282, 283, 284. 
Capital letters, rules for use of, 

276. 
Case, 31, 60. 

Nominative, 31, 39. 

Nominative absolute, 165. 

Nominative of address, 39. 41. 

Nominative by exclamation, 40, 
41. 

Nominative, uses of, 41, 60. 

Objective, uses of, 59, 61. 

Objective, with preposition, 48, 
59. 

Objective, with verb, 47, 59. 

Possessive, 41, 42, 43, 44. 

Possessive, uses of, 44, 61. 

with noun modified in thought 
omitted, 42, 65. 
Character sketch, a, 314. 



427 



428 



INDEX 



Clause, definition, 72. 

Clauses, adj(fctive, 102, 107, 111. 

Adverb, 102, 107, 111. 

Classification, 102, 103, 104, 105, 
106, 107. 

Contracted, 122. 

Introduced by when and zvhere. 

Noun, uses of, 107, 108, 109, 
110, 111. 

Outline for. 111. 
Clearness, 249. 
Cognate object, 132. 
Colon, 278. 
Combining sentences, 248, 250, 

251, 252, 253, 254. 
Comma, 279. 
Comparison, 87, 88. 
Complement, definition, 34. 

Object, 45, 48. 

Objective, 53, 54, 60, 91. 

of a gerund, 168, 169. 

of a participle, 162. 

Subjective, 37, 45, 48. 

Subjective, 34,_ 37. 
Complements, kind of, 54. 
Composition, art of, 223. 

Form in, 245, 276, 286. 

Revision of, 240, 241, 242, 243, 
244. 
Conjugation, 143, 153, 172, 185, 

194. 
Conjunction, definition, 14. 

Co-ordinate, 112, 116. 

Correct use of, 321. 

Correlative, 112. 

Introductory, 114. 

Subordinate, 113, 116. _ 
Conjunctions, classification of, 
114, 115, 116. 

Order of parsing, 116. 
Conjunctive adverbs, 113, 116. 
Connectives and emphasis, 229. 
Connectives, kinds of, 116. 
Construction, 50, 55, 57, 70, 84, 
106, 109, 119, 120, 121, 131, 
134, 167. 
Co-ordinate conjunction, 112. 
Copula, the, 132, 133. 
Copulative verb, 133. 
Correspondence, 288; social, 298. 
Could, 158. 



Declension, nouns, 64. 

Pronouns, 64, 67. 
Degree, 87, 88. 
Demonstrative adjectives, 83. 
Demonstrative pronouns, 68. 
Description, 311. 

of a dog, 312. 

Supplementary topics, 317. 
Description and explanation, 244. 
Descriptive-narrative, 254. 

Power, basis of, 311. 
Dickens, letters from, 291. 
Did, 159, 160. 
Do, 158, 159. 

Either, neither, 261. 
Elliptical sentences, 122. 
Emphasis, 250. 

Connectives and, 229. 
Examples of effect, 332. 
Exclamation mark, 279. 
Exclamation, nominative by, 40, 

41. 
Explanation, 326. 

A process, 327. 

An adage, 327. 

Gardening, 327. 

Mechanical device, 328. 

Description and, 244, 245. 
Expletive, the, 37, 145, 167. 
Expression, variety in, 254. 

Finite verb, 142. 

Form in composition, 245, 276, 

286. 
Friendly letters, 282. 

Gender, 26, 27, 29, 60. 

Feminine, 27, 29. 

Masculine, 27, 29. 

Neuter, 27, 29. 
Gerund, definition, 168. 

Complement of, 168, 169. 
Gerundial phrase, 160. 
Gerunds, modifications of, 171. 

Outline of, 171. 

Parsing, 170. 

Uses of, 172. 
Guess, think, allow, 265. 

Has, 159. 301, 302. 
Have, 157, 159, 301, 302. 



I 



INDEX 



429 



How Writers Secure Effect, 329. 
Hyphen, 280. 

Imperative mood, 136, 137, 152, 

156. 
Impersonal object, 145. 

Subject, 145. 

Verb, 145. 
In, into, 266. 
Indefinite pronouns, 69. 
Independent elements, Zl , 149, 167. 
Indicative mood, 135, 136, 137, 152, 

153, 156. 
Indirect discourse, 158. 
Indirect object. 51, 52, 59, 61. 
Infinitive mood, 145, 146, 156. 

Objective subject of, 149, 150. 

Uses of, 147, 148, 151, 180. 
Infinitive phrase, 151. 
Inflection, 64, 87, 96, 142. 
Interjection, 16, 167. 
Interrogative adjectives, 86. 
Interrogative pronouns, 61 , 68. 
Introductory Conjunction, 114. 
Invitation, acceptance of, 299. 

Formal, 298. 

Nonacceptance of, 299. 
Is, are, 257, 303. 
It, peculiar uses of, 145. 

Lay, lie, 135, 259, 263, 301. 
Learn, teach, 160, 265. 
Leave, let, 265. 
Lend, loan, 261. 
Let, leave, 265. 
Letter, parts of, 288. 
Letters, business, 294, 296. 

Friendly, 292. 

from Dickens, 291. 
Like, 90. 
Like, love, 265. 

Literature and composition, 306, 
315. 

-Maps, making of, 235. 

^lay, 158, 159, 160, 259. 

-May, can, 259. 

^Meaning of effect in composition, 

329. 
]^Iemorv selections, 267. 268, 271, 

272, 273, 274. 275, 303. 310. 328. 
Might, 158, 159. 



Mood, 154, 156, 180. 

Definition, 135. 

Imperative, 136, 137, 152. 

Indicative, 135, 136, 137, 152, 
153. 

Infinitive, 145. 151, 152. 

Subjunctive, 152, 153, 156. 
Must, 158. 

Narration, 304. 
Nominative case, 39. 

Absolute, 165, 167, 181. 

by exclamatiqn, 40, 41. 

of address, 39. 

Uses of, 41. 
Noun, clauses, uses of, 107, 108, 
109, 110, 111. 

Definition, 7. 

Predicate, 35. 

Prepositional phrase used as, 98. 

Abstract, 23. 

Classification of, 20. 

Collective, 22, 23, 60. 

Common, 20, 60. 

Construction of, 50, 55, 57, 70, 
84, 131. 

Declension of, 64. 

Naming action, 23. 

Number of, 23. 

Outline for, 60. 

Parsing, ZZ, 63, 79. 166, 169, 170. 

Person of, 142. 

Proper, 20, 60. 

Uses of, 22, 31, 35, 38, 39, 52, 
60, 61. 

Verbal, 23, 168, 169. 
Number definition, 24. 

of nouns, 24, 26, 27. 

of pronouns, 26, 27. 

of verbs, 141, 142. 

Plural, 24, 26, 60. 

Singular, 24, 26, 60. 

Object, cognate, 132. 

Impersonal, 145. 

Indirect, 51. 52. 

Retained, 128, 129. 

Complement, 45, 48, 53, 54, 60, 
91. 
Objective, 48. 

Adverbial, 56, 60. 



430 



INDEX 



Objective case, uses of, 59. 

with preposition, 48, 49. 

with verb, 47. 

Objective subject, 149. 150. 
Objects, 49. 
Ought, 158. 

Paragraph, 226. 228. 

An original, 234. 

An original narrative, 227. 

Descriptive, 230, 232. 

Explanatory, 234. 

from suggestion, 235. 

Length of, 229. 

Narrative, 226. 228, 229. 

Narrative-descriptive, 233, 234. 
Paragraphing. 282, 284. 
Paragraphs, descriptive, narrative, 
254. 

Division into, 238. 
Parsing. 33, 65, 63, 79, 91, 92, 96, 
99. 116. 144, 161, 166, 169, 170, 
182, 183, 184. 
Participial phrase. 166. 
Participle, definition, 162. 

Complement of a, 162. 

Tense of, 163. 

Voice of, 163. 
Participles. 164, 166. 171. 181. 

Classification of, 163. 

Have become adjectives, 164. 

Modifications, 171. 

Order of parsing, 166. 

Parsing 166, 169, 170. 

Uses, 171. 
Period, the, 277. 
Person, 62, 63. 

of verb, 141, 142. 
Personal pronouns, 62. 66, 67. 
Personification. 28, 29. 
Phrase, gerundial, 169. 

Infinitive, 151. 

Participial. 166. 
Phrases, kinds. 171. 

Prepositional, 98. 

Modified, 98. 

Prepositional, uses of, 100. 

Uses of, 151. 
Plurals and possessives. 257. 
Plurals, rules for, formation of, 
24. 



Possessive case, 41, 42, 43, 44. 

Two forms of, 65. 

with noun modified in thought 
omitted, 42, 65. 

Uses of, 44. 
Possessives. plurals and. 257. 

rules for forming. 43. 
Predicate, compound, 44, 101, 44. 

Definition. 6. 

Simple, 197. 

Adjective, 35. ■ 

Noun, 35. 
Preposition consisting of two or 
more words, 29. 

Definition, 12. 
Prepositions, correct use of, 319. 
320. 

Part of a verb, 99, 100. 

Parsing, 99. 
Prepositions and objects, 49. 
Prepositional phrases, 98, 99, 100. 

Modified, 98. 
Principal verbs, 138, 156, 157, 158. 

159. 
Progressive form of verbs, 192. 
Pronominal adjectives, 86. 
Pronoun, definition. 8. 
Pronouns, 62, 77, 86. 

Compound personal, 65. 

Construction of. 69. 70. 84. 131. 

Correct use of, 77, 78, 80, 81, 
259. 

Declension of. 64, 67. 

Demonstrative, 68. 

Emphatic use of, 65. 

Indefinite, 69, 70. 

Interrogative, 67, 68. 

Order of parsing. 77. 

Parsing. 63. 65. 79. 

Personal. 62. 63, 64, 66. 67. 

Person of, 62, 63. 

Reflexive use of, 65. 

Relative. 72.. 73, 118. 119. 

Uses of, 35, 41, 47, 48. 53. 65. 
67. 69. 70. 77. 
Pulp, manufacture of. 234. 
Punctuation. 242. 243, 244. 283, 
284. 

Rules for. 277-281. 

Oualitative adjectives. 82, F3. 



IXDEX 



431 



Question mark. 279. 
Quotation marks, 281. 

References for further study, 332. 
Relative pronouns, 12, 72>, 118, 

119. 
Revision of composition. 240, 242. 

243. 244. 
Rules for use of capital letters, 

276. 

See, conjugation of, 187-194. 

synopsis of, 194, 195. 
Selections for study, 198-221. 
Semicolon, the, 278. 
Sentence, definition of, 1. 

Essentials of a good, 247. 

Order of analysis of. 196. 197. 

Principal parts of, 196. 

The, 247. 
Sentences, classifications of, as to 
form, 101, 102, 107. 

Classification of, as to use, 1, 
2, 3. 4, 9, 12. 17. 

Combining, 248, 250, 251, 252, 
253, 254. 

Complex, 102. 

Compound, 102, 107, 152. 

Declarative, 2, 3, 4. 

Elliptical, 122. 

Exclamatorv, 2, 3, 4. 

Faulty, 324." 

Imperative, 2, 3, 4. 

Interrogative, 2, 3, 4. 

Simple, 101, 107. 
Set, sit, 135, 259. 263. 
Shall, 157, 158. 159. 160, 322. 323. 
Should, 157, 158. 323. 
Sit, set, 135, 259. 263, 301, 302. 
Smoothness, 248. 
So, 69. 

Social correspondence, 298. 
Speech, parts of, 7, 16. 17, 21, 32, 

37, 48. 
Spelling. 283. 
Stop, stay, 265. 
Stories, original, 308. 

Reproduction, 308, 309. 

Twenty good, 309. 
Story, a model, 304. 

of an accident, 308. 



A rescue, 309. 

Three-paragraph, 246. 

Strength, 248. 
Strong verbs, 172. 

Principal parts of, 173. 
Subject, clause used as, 107, 

Definition, 5. 

Entire, 197. 

Simple, 197. 

Impersonal, 145. 

Representative, 145. 

Objective, 149, 150. 
Subjective comjilement, 2)7, 45, 48. 
Subject nominative, 31. 
Subjunctive mood, 152, 153, 156. 
Subordinate conjunction. 113. 
Substantive, 91, 98, 111. 
Such, 69. 

Synonyms, 258, 260. 264. 300.^322. 
Synopsis of verb see, 194, 195. 

Teach, learn, 160, 265. 
Telegrams, 297. 
Tense, 138-141. 

Future, 139, 141. 

Future perfect, 140, 141. 

Past, 139, 141. 

Past perfect. 140. 141. 

Present, 138, 141. 

Present perfect, 140, 141. 
Than, 122. 

That, 68, 72, 73, 114, 116, 321. 
There, 2,7. 
Thou, 65. 
To, 146. 

Unity, 248. 

Varietv and smoothness, 236, 237, 

238. 
Variety in expression. 245, 254. 
Verb, definition, 11. 

Impersonal, 145. 
Verbal forms, 171, 181. 

Noun, 23, 169. 
Verbs, auxiliary, 138, 156, 157, 158, 
159. 
Classification of, as to form, 

172-179. 
Classification of, as to use, 129, 
130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 137, 180. 



432 



INDEX 



Conjugation of, 143, 153, 185- 

195. 
Copula, 132. 
Copulative, 133. 
Defective, 179. 
Either transitive or intransitive, 

131. 
Forms of, 263, 300, 301, 302. 
in active voice only, 129. 
Intransitive, 129, 130. 
Irregular weak, principal parts 

of, 176, 177. 
Outline for, 179, 180, 181, 182. 
Parsing, 144, 161, 182, 183, 184. 
Person and number of, 141, 142. 
Principal, 138, 156. 157, 158, 159. 
Principal parts, 144, 176, 177, 

178, 179. 
Progressive form, 192. 
Regular weak, 176. 
Strong, 172. 
Principal parts, 173. 
Transitive, 129, 130. 
Voice of, 127. 
Weak. 172, 176. 
Voice. 129, 180. 
Active, 127. 



Change of, 128. 

Passive, 127. 

Verbs in active only, 129. 

Was, were, 257, 303. 
Weak verbs, 172. 

Irregular, principal parts of, 
176, 177. 

Regular, 176. 
What, 67, 72, 1Z, 84. 

Varied uses of, 118. 
Which, 67, 72, IZ, 84. 

Varied uses of, 118. 
Who, 67, 72. 

Varied uses of, 118. 
Will, 157, 158, 322, 323. 
Words and phrases, construction, 

106, 109. 
Words, choice of, 135, 160, 256, 
267, 268, 270. 

Meaning of, 255. 

Use of, 259, 261. 263. 266, 300, 
301, 302, 303. 322 323. 
Would 157, 323. 

Ye, 65. 

You, number of, 142. 



INDEX TO PRACTICAL ENGLISH 



Adjectives, comparison of, 415; 
comparative degree of, with 
other, 415; referring to the sub- 
ject, after look, feel, etc., 415, 
416. 

Adverbs, or adjectives, with look, 
feel, smell, etc., 415, 416. 

Agreement, of pronoun and ante- 
cedent, 363-371; of subject and 
predicate, 335-351. 

Antecedents, agreement of pro- 
nouns with, 363-371 ; connected 
by conjunctions, 367, 368; col- 
lective nouns as, 368; plural in 
form, singular or plural in 
meaning, 368. 

Anybody, singular antecedent 2)^. 

Any one, singular antecedent, 366. 

Apostrophe, placing of, ?)72)-2>7^. 

Article, errors in use of the, 409, 
410; omitted after "sort of," 
"kind of," etc. 

As, instead of like, 403. 

As-as; so-as, 424. 

As if, instead of like, 403; fol- 
lowed by subjunctive, 401. 

Be, case of pronouns with finite 
and infinitive forms of, 359-362. 
Beside and besides, 421. 
Betzveen and among, 421. 
But what; but that, 423, 424. 

Can and may, 419. 

Case, of nouns as subject and 
object, 353; of pronouns as sub- 
jects, 352, 353; of pronouns as 
objects of prepositions, 352-359; 
of pronouns as objects of verbs, 
352-359; of pronouns after fi- 
nite forms of "be," 359-362; 
after infinitive forms of "be," 
360, 362; possessive, of nouns, 
how formed, 373, 375, 376; pos- 
sessive, of personal pronouns, 
378 ; possessive, of nouns, in- 
dicated by of, 376; possessive, 
before gerunds, 377. 



Collective nouns, as subjects, 341; 
as antecedents, 368; followed by 
which, 412. 
Contractions, 418. 
Could and might, 419. 

Doubt that, 423, 424. 

Each, preceding singular sub- 
jects, 348; used as subject, 349; 
singular antecedent, 366; not 
changed in foi;m before gerund. 

Either, used as subject, 349; sing- 
ular antecedent, 366; refers to 
one of two, 367. 

Either — or, connecting singular 
subjects, 348; misplacing of, 
424; use of, as correlatives, 
424. 

Euphony, defined, 375 ; omission 
of 's for, 375, 376. ^ 

Every, preceding singular sub- 
jects, 348. 

Everybody, singular antecedent, 
366. 

Every one, singular antecedent, 
. 366. 

Except, distinguished from with- 
out and unless, 422. 

Gender, agreement of pronoun 
and antecedent in, 363. 

Gerund, with noun or pronoun in 
possessive case, 381, 382. 

Had better. All. \ 

His and one's, 364, 365, 369. 

His, indicating both sexes, 421. 

Infinitive, subject of, in objec- 
tive case, 360; "split," 418. 

Irregular verbs, 384-392. 

Like, use of, for as or as if, 403, 

Man after man, singular antece- 
dent, 366. 

Many a, preceding singular sub- 
jects, 348. 

Mood, indicative and subjunc- 
tive, distinguished, 399-401 ; sub- 
junctive, of "be," 400, 401. 



433 



434 



INDEX 



-Kcithcr, used as subject, 340; 
•shi^'ular antecedent, 366; refers 
ito one of two, 367. 

Neither — nor, connecting singu- 
lar subjects, 348; misplacing of. 
424; use of, as correlatives, 424; 
connecting singular antecedents, 
367, 368. 

None, singular or plural, 349. 

Nouns, plural in form, singular in 
meaning, 339, 340 ; plural in 
form and meaning, 340; plural 
in form, singular or plural in 
meaning, 339; collective, as sub- 
jects, 341; collective, as ante- 
cedents, 368; Anglicized foreign, 
344-346; as subjects, connected 
by conjunctions, 347; forming 
of plurals of, 372, 373 ; forming 
of possessives of, 3'^3-375. 

Number, agreement of subject 
and predicate in, 335-351 ; agree- 
ment of pronoun and antecedent 
in, 363, 365-371. 

Objective case, of personal pro- 
nouns as objects, 352-359; of 
personal pronouns after forms 
of "be," 360, 362; of nouns as 

Objects, 353. 

Only, misplacing of, 421. 

Person, agreement in, of subject 
and predicate, 335; agreement 
in, of pronoun and antecedent, 
364, 365; of subject nearest 
verb, 335, 348. 

Phrases, plural in form, singular 
in meaning, 340. 

Possessive case, of nouns, how 
formed, 373-376 ; of personal 
pronouns, 378; of nouns, when 
indicated by of. 376, 377 \ before 
gerunds, 381, 382. 

Pronouns, relative, as subjects of 
clauses, 347; personal, as sub- 
jects of finite verbs, 352; per- 
sonal, as objects of verbs and 
prepositions, 352-359; personal, 
with finite and infinitive forms 
of "be," 359-362; "self" forms 



of, 354; agreement of, with an- 
tecedent, 363-371. 

Redundancy, 415. 

Shall and -will, use of, 393-398. 

Should and ivonld, use of, 396- 
398. 

Subjects, plural in form, singular 
or plural in meaning, 339; col- 
lective, 341 ; connected by con- 
junctions, 347, 367, 368; Angli- 
cized foreign, 344-346. 

Subjunctive mood, distinguished 
from indicative, 399-401 ; pres- 
ent and preterite, of "be," 400, 
401. 

Such and so, 422. 

Tense, present, to express exist- 
ing fact or general truth, 405 ; 
"attraction," 406; present infin- 
itive, instead of perfect infini- 
tive, 406; additional errors of, 
418, 419. 

Unless, distinguished from except 
and ivithout, 422. 

Verbs, agreement of, with sub- 
jects, 335; agreement in num- 
ber, sources of errors in 336- 
351 ; subjects of, in nominative 
case, 352-359; objects of, in ob- 
jective case, 352-359; finite and 
infinitive forms of, with pro- 
nouns, 352, 359-362; subjects of 
infinitive forms of, in objective 
case, 360 ; regular and irregu- 
lar, 384-392; principal parts of. 
385, 387, 388. 

Verbal (gerund), limited by noun 
or pronoun in possessive case, 
381. 

JVere, use of, in subjunctive mood. 
401. 

JVithout. distinguished from ex- 
cept and unless, 422. 

JVho and whom, with verbs and 
prepositions, 357-359; com- 
pounds of. 357-359. 

JVho, ivhich, and that, use of. dis- 
tinguished and illustrated. 411^ 
414. 

Whose, use of, 413. 



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